In response to a question about the influences that turned him to a military career, Dwight Eisenhower had a cold reply, "Unlike most men entering the military career," he said, "I had no childhood dreams of becoming a solider, nor did I have acquaintance that could incline me to opt for a military career. The decisive influences that led me to take up the soldier’s uniform were mere accidents."
Wars have always interested youngsters of a nation that has a fascinating military history. Dwight was no exception. The first decisive influence that drove him to develop an inclination for military career was Little. A very good friend of Dwight’s mother, Little had stayed at the West Point Military Academy, but had to return due to eye problems. Mr. Little made a strong impression on the young boy. His talks inspired Dwight and for the first time in life, he imagined himself in a military uniform.
An equally strong influence on Dwight was of a friend’s father, a doctor. Everett Hazlett. Dwight’s friend, Everett Hazlett, Jr. had gone to a military school for several years and had appeared for an entrance exam for the Naval Academy but had failed. Conversations with Everett Hazlett, Sr. stimulated Dwight's sense of competition. Both, father and son, made a strong impression on Dwight's mind and caused him to seriously consider a military career.
Dwight did not have the the slightest idea about how one went about summoning the political influence necessary to enter the Naval Academy at Annapolis. It seemed like a herculean task for Eisenhower. Finally, he seeked the help of a local editor, Mr. Heath, who was a good friend of his family and who eventually acted as an intermediary with one of the senators of Kansas. Senator Bristow turned out to be just the person whose help Dwight required. Eisenhower's first step forward in life came because a Republican of unorthodox breed vouched for him.
The lives of most successful people reveal that they were people who somehow got into a chain of events that finally led them to their destiny. For Dwight, he was unaware of a life that would take him to the zenith of any career anyone could possibly imagine – the Supreme Commander and the President of the United States. With no hope of clearing the entrance test for the military academy, he appeared for the exam, both for the Academy at Annapolis and at West Point. The results astonished him. He stood first in the Annapolis test and second in the West Point test. Following his inner voice, he had appeared for both tests and that turned out to be a smart move. He had just missed the age criteria for the Naval Academy at Annapolis by a margin of just a a few months. At the age of 21, Eisenhower came across to the east to enter the West Point Military Academy.
In the Military Academy
Getting admission at West Point had been easier than Eisenhower had anticipated, but there was still one more challenge. Ida, his mother was reluctant to send him. She did not approve of Dwight’s decision, yet following her own percept she did not create hindrances in Dwight’s way; neither did she oppose him. Ultimately, he got enrolled as a West Point cadet.
Self-discipline was the most valuable trait he acquired during his stay at West Point. Academically, he was average and never excelled, still he maintained his position in the group of above average students. He stood 57th in a class of over 200 students in the first year. Continuing his excellent performance in history and English, he stood 61st in the final year of study at the military academy.
Unfortunately, Eisenhower injured his knee, which brought an end to his athletic career. Of the few things he always regretted, one was this injury because consequently he was told to resign from the football team. Inspite of such personal setbacks, he scored 2039 out of 2525 marks in the final year, and in June 1915, passed out of the academy as a Second Lieutenant..
"Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired, signifies in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and not feed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hope of its children…"
Outpour of a man who spent 37 years in military service, actively participating in both the World Wars. Dwight Eisenhower, before he led the USA for two terms as President, played a key role as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces to restrict Communism, from spreading to European countries.
Birth
Dwight David Eisenhower was born on October 14, 1890, as the third son of David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Strover, in the small town of Denison, Texas. Initially the child was named David Dwight Eisenhower but later on the names were reversed and he got to be identified as Dwight David Eisenhower. From his early days, the nickname ‘Ike’ was attached to him, which stayed through his days of Presidency.
Family History
Incidentally, the man who played a decisive role in defeating the German troops, himself belonged to a family that originally belonged to Germany. Dwight Eisenhower’s ancestors came from the Rhineland region of Germany and had migrated initially to Switzerland and later to the US.
Dwight’s father David was basically a simpleton, an introvert. Ida Strover was a woman of strong character and a dominating yet loving nature who often helped her husband when he failed to manage the household. David inherited 160 acres of land and $ 2,000. His disinclination to do business after he suffered a major loss in his merchandise shop, and inability to manage the property led David to bankruptcy. David fled to Denison, Texas to avoid the disgrace and humiliation. Two years later, the Eisenhowers moved back to Abilene, Kansas with their third child Dwight.
A father, weak and unable to meet even the primary needs to survive, along with poor surroundings; these were certainly not the best of influences a child is exposed to.
Childhood
Dwight was an ‘abnormally normal’ child, said one of his biographers. He neither showed any sign of a military genius, nor of a leader in his young days. He was an average boy, shy of girls, devoted to his brothers and above all, very adjusting in conduct. Without doubt, it can be said that he never showed any traits of a child prodigy.
Common in every other way, there was one trait that distinguished him from most children of his age. He was hard working, beyond the semantic expression of the phrase.
Young Ike had to sell vegetables at the local market and to some rich families of Abilene. Considering his father’s low income, Dwight worked hard after school hours and at times he had to work on the farm. The family struggled hard to make ends meet, and it was a real challenge for his mother to maintain even minimum living standards. When he was 10, his mother asked him to go out and manage the expenses if he wanted to study. He took charge of himself and decided to fight his way through the challenge to educate himself. This early development of fortitude and an inner strength helped him to work in the fields while studying at school.
The academic curriculum never fascinated him despite being an above average student during his high school years. Sports and athletics drove him more to school than did his study.
But, as the saying goes, "there ain’t no free lunch," the price of spending few hours on the track field and playground was paid in big hours, working hard on the farm in his teenage.
History was an exception as the young Dwight was remarkably good at remembering dates and events. None of his mates would have been taken by surprise if Eisenhower were to become a history teacher. But what destiny conceives in its womb always stays hidden until things reveal themselves. No one knew then that a common boy, who called himself just one among the local folk, would never enter a classroom to teach history, instead, he would go out in the world to create one and emboss his name in shining letters in the book of war history.
Ironically, Eisenhower, the man who headed the war planning division during World War II, had not even a vague idea of life ahead, when he graduated from high school. He wanted to have a university degree and so did his brother Edgar. Dwight arranged a pretty uncommon bargain with Edgar. It was decided that one of them would study for a year and the other would provide financial support. Next year they will exchange positions and consequently both will have a university degree at the end of eight years. Following the agreement with Edgar, Dwight took a job as a second engineer and fireman at the local ceremony, engaging in exhausting manual labor of 12 hours. Destiny was incubating a soldier in a man for the heroic role he was to play in the most disastrous war on earth.
Birth Of A Soldier
In response to a question about the influences that turned him to a military career, Dwight Eisenhower had a cold reply, "Unlike most men entering the military career," he said, "I had no childhood dreams of becoming a solider, nor did I have acquaintance that could incline me to opt for a military career. The decisive influences that led me to take up the soldier’s uniform were mere accidents."
Wars have always interested youngsters of a nation that has a fascinating military history. Dwight was no exception. The first decisive influence that drove him to develop an inclination for military career was Little. A very good friend of Dwight’s mother, Little had stayed at the West Point Military Academy, but had to return due to eye problems. Mr. Little made a strong impression on the young boy. His talks inspired Dwight and for the first time in life, he imagined himself in a military uniform.
An equally strong influence on Dwight was of a friend’s father, a doctor. Everett Hazlett. Dwight’s friend, Everett Hazlett, Jr. had gone to a military school for several years and had appeared for an entrance exam for the Naval Academy but had failed. Conversations with Everett Hazlett, Sr. stimulated Dwight's sense of competition. Both, father and son, made a strong impression on Dwight's mind and caused him to seriously consider a military career.
Dwight did not have the the slightest idea about how one went about summoning the political influence necessary to enter the Naval Academy at Annapolis. It seemed like a herculean task for Eisenhower. Finally, he seeked the help of a local editor, Mr. Heath, who was a good friend of his family and who eventually acted as an intermediary with one of the senators of Kansas. Senator Bristow turned out to be just the person whose help Dwight required. Eisenhower's first step forward in life came because a Republican of unorthodox breed vouched for him.
The lives of most successful people reveal that they were people who somehow got into a chain of events that finally led them to their destiny. For Dwight, he was unaware of a life that would take him to the zenith of any career anyone could possibly imagine – the Supreme Commander and the President of the United States. With no hope of clearing the entrance test for the military academy, he appeared for the exam, both for the Academy at Annapolis and at West Point. The results astonished him. He stood first in the Annapolis test and second in the West Point test. Following his inner voice, he had appeared for both tests and that turned out to be a smart move. He had just missed the age criteria for the Naval Academy at Annapolis by a margin of just a a few months. At the age of 21, Eisenhower came across to the east to enter the West Point Military Academy.
In the Military Academy
Getting admission at West Point had been easier than Eisenhower had anticipated, but there was still one more challenge. Ida, his mother was reluctant to send him. She did not approve of Dwight’s decision, yet following her own percept she did not create hindrances in Dwight’s way; neither did she oppose him. Ultimately, he got enrolled as a West Point cadet.
Self-discipline was the most valuable trait he acquired during his stay at West Point. Academically, he was average and never excelled, still he maintained his position in the group of above average students. He stood 57th in a class of over 200 students in the first year. Continuing his excellent performance in history and English, he stood 61st in the final year of study at the military academy.
Unfortunately, Eisenhower injured his knee, which brought an end to his athletic career. Of the few things he always regretted, one was this injury because consequently he was told to resign from the football team. Inspite of such personal setbacks, he scored 2039 out of 2525 marks in the final year, and in June 1915, passed out of the academy as a Second Lieutenant..
The First Victory: Marriage
Wars are not just fought on battlefields but they appear in the face of most common life situations too. Marriage for Eisenhower was no less than winning a battle. While he was at the 19th Infantry at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, he met a pretty girl, Mamie Doud; a vivacious girl with good looks, brought up in an affluent family. Incidentally, they both met at a party and Dwight was taken by her spell. He proposed to Mamie. Initially, she had doubts about marrying a Second Lieutenant who may not be able to provide her with the lifestyle she was used to. She listened to her heart’s voice and accepted Dwight’s proposal.
For Dwight, however, everything was not immediately a bed of roses, as there were other young officers standing between him and Mamie, wooing Mamie. Dwight was Mamie’s ultimate choice. On July 1, 1916, they got married and stayed as a happy couple till death separated them.
Losing the Other Battle
Life’s events unfailingly follow a pattern of crests and troughs. The days with Mamie soon after marriage were the best in Dwight's life. If heaven is a state of mind, then those were the heavenly days for Eisenhower. Life was moving smoothly when life took a turn for the worst. Mamie had delivered a baby boy in 1917, whom they had nicknamed Icky. Dwight was very attached to the child. But scarlet fever snatched his son’s life away and shocked Eisenhower. He felt as if he had hit the bottom of the abyss of sadness. For months, he could not recover from the trauma.
Later in 1923, the Eisenhowers had another child, a boy once again. He grew up to be a brilliant student, who later stepped in his father’s shoes, graduating from West Point.
Army Career
Entering the army as a Second Lieutenant, Eisenhower reached the highest position of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces. Persistence, planning and preparing exceptionally good reports were the qualities that distinguished him from other officers.
In the early phase of his military career, he was almost an average officer, who seldom received any recognition. As an officer, he was competent and a task master, but never showed any signs of exceptional brilliance. During peace time, promotions were very slow in the army and Eisenhower experienced this languid process as he climbed the uphill journey for the major part of his career.
The first significant period in his life was between 1922 and 1924. He was a subordinate to a sharp and intelligent officer Fox Conner. Major General Conner was the operations officer and he had picked up Eisenhower to help him run his office in the war department. Association with Conner taught him what Emerson called, "the most valuable trait a man can ever achieve – the ability to do what should be done, when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not." With Conner, Eisenhower learnt the value of military reading – incessant study of the classics of warfare. But the most important was that he never put a personal view forward – and that an order was an order.
Fox Conner was a farsighted man and predicted that George Marshall, then a junior officer, was to play a key role in the coming years of US military affairs. Often he would talk to Eisenhower regarding Marshall’s integrity, capability and sound judgments. Eisenhower took it seriously and always observed George Marshall as he moved gradually to head the US armed forces. Fox Conner was the man, who as a military man, had great influence on Eisenhower.
A few years later, Eisenhower got a precious opportunity to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth. He was reluctant to go, thinking that he was incompetent to attend the school. Conner rekindled his faith. Dwight went to Leavenworth and worked very hard to lift himself above the level of his fellows. That was the first time he attracted notice of senior officers as he topped the class.
Beginning a career as Second Lieutenant, he got his first promotion as First Lieutenant in July 1916, followed by the post of Captain the next year. World War I shook the promotion order, and consequently Eisenhower was made a Major on ad-hoc basis and Lieutenant Colonel again on ad-hoc basis within a year. As the war ended, the sand settled in the water and officers reverted to their original posts. Two years later, in 1920 Eisenhower moved back to his permanent rank of Captain just to become a Major in few weeks. For 16 years he remained Major until in 1936 when he was promoted as Lieutenant Colonel.
At the time he graduated from West Point, he was elder to most of his classmates. This worried him as the rate with which promotions were given and the age he had reached – 46 years – in 1936, he could not dare dream of any rank higher that that of Colonel. Eisenhower was one of the few people who were really benefited on personal fronts due to war. Once again the air reverberated throughout the globe in anticipation of another war. Finally, war broke out again and accelerated the promotions in the US Army.
As early as in 1941, he became a Colonel, which he thought would have been his final position in the army. But soon he was made Brigadier General and a Major General on ad-hoc basis in 1942. The World War II had a catalytic effect on his career. In another year, he reached the position of General. But this too was a temporary promotion. Eisenhower was made a permanent General finally in December 1944.
No man has ever been recorded to rush to the top of a military rung as quickly as Eisenhower made it. At the age of 51, he was still a Lieutenant Colonel. And in a period of less than two years, he was a General. The first 25 years of his military career took him to reach the post of Lieutenant Colonel while in the next 25 months, he reached the post of General. An analogy will give a better idea of the speed with which Eisenhower rushed to the top. In a building of 10 floors, Lieutenant Colonel represents only the 2nd floor while the General represents the 9th floor.
What helped him move up the ladder was the wide experience he had in the different departments of the army. He had received transfers to most departments, which exposed him to maximum number of army men. ‘The most popular officer in the Army’ was a label he earned due to his wide acquaintances.
Never in his life as an army officer, Eisenhower had seen or participated in any combat till 1942. Usually, he had been doing paper work. Preparing reports was his unparalleled skill, which he was always given a chance to work with. He was a warrior who had to fight battles with pen and paper for over a quarter of century. Still, deep down in him lived a warrior with sword. Leading a combat operation or to become a commanding officer, was an ambition incubating in his mind.
Opportunity knocked his doors in 1942 when he was given the task of commanding the European Theater of Operations. The US Army’s decision proved to be a winning move as Eisenhower proved himself to the task. From 1942 to the end of World War II, he served as a key person leading the troops to defeat the Germans.
Pre-War Assignments
Eisenhower’s career grew exponentially. Suddenly, he was lifted to new heights during World War II and excelled thereafter. But he had an interesting though not much of an exciting career, which served as a runway for his flight to success.
From 1915 to 1917, he served as an assistant mustering officer at Camp Wilson, Texas. In September 1917, he became an instructor in the Officer’s Training Camp in Georgia. At the fag end of World War I in 1918, he got his first important assignment. He was given command of the Tank Corps Training Center at Camp Colt, Pennsylvania. The assignment was important but not exactly what he desired. He aspired to go overseas for taking active part in combat. But destiny had different plans. As if the grounds were being prepared for his role in the next World War, he was given the task at Tank Corps Training. In all, 9,000 soldiers and 600 officers were to be led by him. In fact few in the whole American army knew much about tanks. Eisenhower grabbed the opportunity, as he foresaw the indispensable role tanks would play in the coming years. He learnt everything about tanks. Particularly, on tank operations and their role in armored warfare. However, he never got to work with an actual tank. He could only learn on the wooden model of the tank, considering the fact that there were very few tanks in possession of the army then. This experience served as a requisite reference for the wonderful task he accomplished by directing tanks to Germany and France in World War II.
Ten years later, he got his first important military achievement for his work regarding tanks in form of the Distinguished Service Medal. Eisenhower’s association with tanks lasted longer as he was transferred to Camp Dix, New Jersey and Fort Benning, Georgia, once again to command the Tank Corps troops in 1921–22. In the meantime, he graduated from the Infantry Tank School.
During the war, he had to engage mostly in planning the combat. It would certainly have been impossible for him to have an umbrella view of the war, if another opportunity had not popped up, that gave him thorough knowledge of supply and mobility of army goods and problems of logistics. He took part in a truck-convoy operation traveling by road for over 10,000 miles. This experience gave him requisite knowledge of possible problems troops might have to face during mobilization, and ultimately it contributed in his holistic view in war planning.
Later in 1924, he became a recruiting officer at Fort Logan, Colorado. Finally he got a chance to go overseas to France for eight months with the American Battle Monuments Commission. While in France, he grabbed the opportunity to look minutely at every battlefield of World War I. From France, he was pulled back to Washington where he attended the Army Industrial College.
A key officer in the US army, MacArthur, had been much impressed by Eisenhower.
MacArthur picked him up as the Chief of Staff. He worked for two years with MacArthur in the Philippines.
He learnt a lot from him and raised his level of competency during those two years of stay. MacArthur was very ambitious, flamboyant, and egoistic. Such nature was not suitable for a mutually fulfilling relationship, but in spite of it all, Eisenhower was able to appreciate the military genius of his superior.
The association with MacArthur did not last long. Eisenhower had to return to the USA. Upon returning from the Philippines, Eisenhower got engaged in noticeable jobs, winning respect from his subordinates, and appreciation and attention from his superiors.
Even before it could be comprehended, America was sinking into another possible war. Eisenhower knew it and was firm about his views that it will take place, in the near future. He also held that it would be Germany and not Japan to initiate the attack against the USA.
Still a Lieutenant Colonel in 1941, Eisenhower was made Chief of Staff of the Third Army, headed by General Walter Kreuger. This period as he remembered was the hardest period of his life. He was the key officer responsible for Louisiana maneuvers. Every bit of knowledge he had gathered in 26 years of military service, he put to use for these maneuvers. Consequently, for the first time in his life, Eisenhower’s name was published in the national newspapers, crediting him for the maneuver.
Louisiana maneuvers certainly brought him name, on account of his hard work. But it was all physically exhausting. He went into his bedroom informing his subordinates to leave him undisturbed whatsoever. His subordinate officers were in a dilemma when they received the news of happenings at Pearl Harbor.
Finally they informed him. The war was calling him to play his part.
The Turning Point
Chief of Army, General George Marshall called him to join his office as Chief of Staff and placed Conner in the War Plans Division. Marshall was the same man whom Fox Conner had referred to years ago as a would-be important figure in the US Army. George Marshall himself was a highly competent officer, and was in the process of dropping the dead cells from US Army, and insisted on promoting vigorous young men. He promoted Eisenhower and made him Major General and head of the Operations Division in March 1942.
In 1942, Europe was in the clutches of two demons – Communism and Dictatorship. Taking his American spirit of freedom and free enterprise, Eisenhower stepped into Europe with a promise of peace.
The Emergence of a Star
When World War II was halfway through, Eisenhower got the chance to shine out by active participation. General George Marshall, looking for competent and enthusiastic officers, picked up Eisenhower. But Dwight had still to win the General’s confidence. With a deliberate intention to weigh Eisenhower’s skills, Marshall talked about a problem the US Military Forces were facing regarding the Pacific Strategy. For the first time in his life, in end of 1941, Eisenhower was suddenly exposed to an issue that had immense significance from the defence point of view of the USA. On his request, Marshall granted few hours to contemplate over the problem.
"I agree with you" – the words slipped-off Marshall’s mouth almost effortlessly as he listened to the wonderful strategy Eisenhower had proposed. He not only showed how the war should be fought, but also proposed a strategy to win the war. He cleared the test set up by Marshall. But that was not the end. Marshall wanted him to meet a greater task. Subsequently, he sent him to England to bring a study report related to the American troops positioned in Europe.
The brief visit to England opened doors for abundant power and opportunity to shine out on a global level for Eisenhower. On his return, he submitted a 30-page report-cum-proposal about "providing unified command of all American troops allocated to European area". He also gave a wonderful outline of how the American troops should participate in the European Theater. Marshall was enthralled by his observations and proposal and three days later told Eisenhower to take command of the European Theatre. The man, who was already a shining star of the US armed forces, was ready to appear on stage where the entire world would now watch him. Marshall asked him when he would be ready to leave for London, and he was stunned to hear Eisenhower’s prompt reply – ‘tomorrow’.
Shining in the War
Pearl Harbor gave birth to a new star in the US Army. It was only after Pearl Harbor that Eisenhower was lifted to a world stage to shine out on. Although World War II had begun in 1939, America did not contribute actively until December 1941. Till then, Germany along with Italy and Japan, threatened Great Britain and France, and later on even troubled the USSR and the USA. The US military movements had already begun as a preparatory action.
Japan attacked the US naval base of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, causing America’s entry into the World War. Eisenhower was sent to London in June 1942 as ETO’s Commanding General. There, he was designated as the commander of Allied Forces, organized to invade North Africa. The Allied troops led by Eisenhower recaptured the region from the Germans and Italians. Success of that operation earned him the highest promotion in the army – a four-star ranked General. Continuing his series of accomplishments, he cleared his way to Italy after a successful invasion of Sicily.
German troops had spread through entire Europe, and Great Britain was in concern for that matter. A combined staff of the US Army and Great Britain’s was set up for the allied invasion of German occupied Europe. President Roosevelt made Eisenhower the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe in December 1943.
Never in the history of wars a sea-borne invasion had taken place as mighty as Eisenhower carried out. He planned to cross the English Channel to invade Normandy, giving the task the name of Operation Overload. For such an uphill task, he organized headquarters in London and began the planning. Coordinating the armies and navies of the US, the UK and other Allies, ensuring that they worked smoothly as one force, was really a challenging but crucial job. Eisenhower loved challenges and he picked up this one too. Dealing with humans was not the only kind of problem, for they can be controlled by force if required, but something else where they all were at the mercy of a power beyond their influence. Operation Overload’s performance depended much on the nature of the sea – after all they were to perform a feat at which no one had ever succeeded: to cross the English Channel.
As if to test Eisenhower’s nerves, the weather got worse before the day of the planned invasion, when the tide would be low and favorable. The sea got rough and the sky was covered with clouds. There were no signs the weather letting up on the day of the invasion. The operation was set up to stun the rivals by attacking unexpectedly and now the whole thing was in question on account of weather. Nature had played its part. Eisenhower played his, as he said – "O.K., let’s go" after much contemplation. It was a risk this man was bearing on his shoulders, for the lives of all those soldiers who were ready to jump-in on his word. Invasion began on the same day and after 11 months of fighting, Germany surrendered in May 1945.
While the fight was still on in December 1944, the US Army honored Eisenhower with a five-star rank, a newly created rank. When the war ended in 1945, he returned to America in June. The nation welcomed the glorious hero of World War II.
Graceful Retirement
Seldom could it occur to one that a man entering at the lowest step of the military-rung would retire at the topmost position, particularly in a field full of competition like the US Army. Eisenhower did it as he retired from active military service in 1948 from the highest position in the US Army. Following his retirement, he became president of Columbia University in New York. He published his wartime experiences in a book that even to his surprise became a bestseller. The book was Crusade in Europe.
NATO Forces
Soon he had to put on the uniform once again. The reason was spread of Communism, throughout Europe. It was a big concern for Western Europe, especially for the UK, the USA, and Canada, who joined hands with several Western European countries to form a military alliance – the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. The next year US President Harry Truman asked Eisenhower to take command of NATO forces in Europe. He was made the supreme commander of that unique international army.
On January 6, 1951, Eisenhower took his flight to Paris to take charge of his new position. For 15 months, he devoted himself to the task of creating a united military organization in Western Europe to defend against the Communist aggression. The headquarters were in Paris and Eisenhower lived half an hour drive away in a fairly big house – the Villa St. Pierre. A piece of land well nurtured to make it a lawn, giving an illusion of green carpet was stretched around the white porch of the Villa. Not even Eisenhower knew that a journey out from this home, is soon going to take him through the white porch of his Villa to the White House, far across the oceans in Washington DC.
Refusing Presidency
To refuse proposals for nomination for the Presidency just because your conscience denies it, is a daring act in itself. While anyone could have been lured by the offer, Eisenhower bluntly denied it when both the Democrats and the Republicans approached him with nomination for Presidency. He firmly believed that there is an invisible line drawn between the military service and the Presidency. He also held firm views that a soldier should stay away from any higher office on political grounds.
Eisenhower never knew, but he had certainly disappointed millions of Americans who wanted to see the war hero as their leader. Both the parties proposed him to take the lead during 1948’s Presidential elections. It is also said that many top level decision-makers from the Democratic party offered him their support for the nomination of President in place of President Truman on the Democratic ticket. One of his biographers, while he was interviewing him in his Pentagon office told him – "you must accept the Presidency and clean up all the mess that is there in Washington.
" To that Eisenhower replied bluntly that he is the Chief of Staff of the Army and he has got a particular job to do for America which cannot be done by entertaining any political ambition.
Presidency – A Call of Duty
What you resist, persists.... Eisenhower resisted the call of Presidency and it seemed that Presidency would not leave him. Surprising the nation, Eisenhower accepted the charge of Supreme Commander of NATO forces in Paris in January 1951. But still the pressure was on from both the parties. His beliefs about the duty of a soldier did not allow him to take up any political office. As the new elections neared, the pressure got intense for him to run for the election.
Once again a war played decisive role in Eisenhower’s life. That was the issue of Korean war. President Harry S. Truman had sent US troops to rescue South Korea from the military invasion of Communist North Korea. There was a group of conservative Republicans who wanted the US troops to be withdrawn from Korea. Eisenhower did not agree to those conservative Republicans. Rest of the Republicans urged Eisenhower that he should come and take up the lead, as they could not see anyone else who could keep the unity of party and settle the issues that were of national concern.
After contemplating a lot, he concluded that it’s a soldier’s duty to stay on the side of the nation, serving the nation in whatever way was required. At the age of 61, Eisenhower decided to go in for Presidency. Of both the parties, he picked up the Republicans whose collective values were nearest to his personal value hierarchy.
There was yet another block in his mind. Going for the Presidential elections from the Republican party meant for Eisenhower to run against President Harry Truman. In fact Eisenhower himself had played key role in designing defense policies for Truman. Eisenhower’s conscience raised internal blocks. But as Victor Hugo has stated, "There is one thing more powerful than army of soldiers – it is an idea whose time has come." That block was sidetracked by itself. Truman decided not to run for re-election.
It really seemed that the time had come for the idea that Eisenhower become the US President. IKE clubs, group of people who admired him and wanted him as the President sprang up across the country. By that time the Supreme Commander had made up his mind to enter the White House.
To run for the Presidency race from the Republican Party, he needed to acquire the nomination from the party. Robert Taft, a conservative Republican was Eisenhower’s nearest rival for the Party’s nomination. But Eisenhower won the nomination in a National Convention, which was held in Chicago. The US Presidency lay right in front of him.
Campaign for The US Presidential Election
Adlai Stevenson, the Governor of Illinois was running against Eisenhower for the US Presidency, and Senator John Sparkman was nominated for Vice-President by the Democrats. The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon as Vice-President. The media made a sincere note that never in the history of Presidential elections there had been such a close contest between two people who are equally qualified and well deserving for national leadership.
Here was a man who had passed almost four decades in military, which naturally gave his personality a very different tint than his rival Stevenson. His face reflected a firmness natural to a military officer but at the same time, he did not have a plastic smile so common to most politicians. Stevenson, on the other hand was a seasoned politician with intellectual wit. While the campaign was on, it had taken a new color than any other previous elections, on account of the advent of television. The military man’s firmness and dignity were obviously more visible than the intelligence and wit of Stevenson. Television, as a media, was favorable to transmit an image of Eisenhower as a kind, dignified, firm and powerful candidate for Presidency.
Twenty years of rule by Democrats had created a sense of dissatisfaction on several issues in America. A few Americans also blamed Democrats, holding them responsible for allowing the Communists to occupy high posts in government. Final element that was in favor of Eisenhower was the experience and fame he had behind his integrity.
Throughout the campaign, Eisenhower gave electrifying speeches that criticized Truman’s steps for ‘Korea, Communists and corruption’. He referred to Truman’s approach for the Korean War, the influence Communists were getting in the government’s key positions and the spread of corruption at most levels in government. In his campaigns, he pledged to go to Korea and bring an end to the war.
General Eisenhower emerged as President Eisenhower after the closest contest in the history of American Presidency. In November 1952, Eisenhower defeated Stevenson as he garnered about 34 million popular votes. For the first time in 20 years, the Republican party came into rule and Dwight Eisenhower was the major contributor to it.
First term as US President (1953-1957)
Style of Working
Eisenhower, the new President of America in 1953, had a long military career to back him. His way of working was certainly influenced by the army. He believed in delegating work and giving local liberty to carry out the task to his subordinates in army and the same pattern he continued with as the President. To involve each Cabinet Officer and White House assistant and optimize the productive output, he delegated responsible tasks to each of them. Criteria to get a key position for an officer was their managerial ability and strong convictions.
A notable trait he exhibited was the speed with which he carried out tasks, without ever sacrificing precision. He preferred to go through a wide range of reports but insisted them to be shortened, usually to a page.
Dealing with domestic affairs, he asked for reduction in government spending. Though he was elected as a Republican, he depended on the leadership of the opposition, the Democrats, to get legislation passed. The reason was internal disagreement between Republicans.
Happenings during Ist Term
While his presidency was in the mid-term, the Republican party lost control of both the houses of Congress. For the rest of his term, he had to work with a Democratic controlled Congress. It made the task difficult for him to win support for his programs, like moving against the flow of a river. Later in 1956, due to the past policies, a critical point was reached when the federal government’s revenues exceeded its expenses to a noticeable extent, and on the other hand a small surplus appeared in the US treasury. To bring about reforms in the economy, a key issue was the reorganization of the Armed Forces. His vision stressed on use of nuclear weapons instead of conventional arms. A Congress led by him also reformed the tax system, modifying it thoroughly and increased the minimum wage to $1 an hour.
Cutting down the costs was a top priority for Eisenhower but a system has so many factors affecting it that he couldn’t achieve his target at the cost of development. Considering the effects, he approved several multibillion–dollar public works that would eventually strengthen the economy of the nation.
A waterway that opened the Great Lakes to ocean ships – the St. Lawrence Seaway was a noticeable program he initiated in 1954, which was completed during his next term in 1959. The wonderful transport system USA is enjoying currently is a valuable contribution by Eisenhower as he began the works for interstate highway system in 1956.
Another project was to build a dam on the Colorado River, which was rejected by the Congress, as it was comparatively expensive.
Within his own party, he had some reluctant members, a group of Conservative Republicans, who opposed most of the proposals made by the liberal Republicans. Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin was the Republican who troubled him the most. McCarthy headed a sub-committee, which worked specially to point out the Communist spread in government. He had made a public statement that there are Communist spies at several key positions in the State government and in the Army. McCarthy considered few Americans as Communist spies and he banned some books written by such people. Protesting against these actions of McCarthy, Eisenhower urged to the American audience in a public speech to keep away from the ‘book burners’. Eisenhower actively avoided to criticize McCarthy, considering the dignity of Presidency. Consequently, McCarthy was curbed by the Senate and was condemned for his conduct.
American Presidency is the most powerful position a man can ever dream of. But by its very nature, the position is thorny. For Eisenhower, one of such disturbing factor was Senator John Bricker of Ohio. Soon after Eisenhower took over the Presidency, Bricker proposed a constitutional amendment, which would require Senate consent for international agreements made by the President. It was an open attempt to cut the wings of the President.
But Eisenhower firmly opposed the attempt of Senator Bricker that could reduce the President’s power to conduct foreign policy. The passing away of Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Premier in March 1953 gave a new hope for better Soviet–American relations. Eisenhower proposed an arrangement called Open Skies during the 1955 summit meeting in Geneva, which was attended by the leaders of Great Britain, France, USA and Soviet Union. According to the arrangement proposed by Eisenhower, both the United States and Soviet Union would allow each other an air inspection of their military bases. But the Soviets rejected his proposal.
Foreign Policies
Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles was the man responsible to direct the US foreign policy during Eisenhower’s Presidency. But Eisenhower took personal interest in setting up the foreign policy and helped Dulles to set the course of the US foreign policies. One of the issues on his manifesto was to bring an immediate end to the Korean War and so only after a month of assuming Presidency, Eisenhower, keeping his promise, set out for a trip to Korea. Unfortunately, the trip failed to bring any immediate result. Nevertheless, a truce was finally signed on July 27, 1953.
The 1950s was the decade when the Communists were getting a hold on to many of the governments across the globe. Eisenhower had played a key role in keeping a check on the increasing Communist hold as an army man, and now as the US President he decided to continue the same task. Employing the Central Intelligence Agency, he took requisite action against the suspected Communist–sponsored governments. The CIA, directed by Eisenhower, played a decisive role to overthrow such governments in Guatemala and Iran in the middle of that decade.
Eisenhower on Nuclear Power
The advent of nuclear power was in itself a great achievement of the first half of the 20th century. Eisenhower acknowledged the utility value of nuclear power but showed a sincere concern on account of employing the nuclear power to develop nuclear weapons. He, instead, proposed in a UN convention that the member countries contribute nuclear materials to a UN agency, which would develop constructive use of nuclear energy. A loud cheer filled the convention hall by the delegates who were enthusiastic about that program, which Eisenhower named ‘Atoms for Peace’. Consequently, the International Atomic Energy Agency emerged in response to the proposal put forth by Eisenhower.
Body Rebels against the Spirit
Eisenhower had unparalleled spirit and he had dreams he wanted to manifest, all centered around world peace. It was unusual for the man who spent almost four decades in army to work for peace. Giving his dream a concrete form, he worked ceaselessly, but the body rebelled against the continuous stress that he shouldered previously as the key person in army and later as the President. Once, while on vacation in the Rocky Mountains, Colorado in 1955, he had a cardiac attack. Fortunately, it was not massive and he could recover soon, getting back to his desk in December 1955.
The heart attack raised a question in the minds of the Americans about Eisenhower’s fitness and his ability to run for another term. But Eisenhower was a soldier by heart. Once he took the responsibility to serve the nation he would not regress for a reason like his fitness. Actually, he wanted to create some reforms, which required that someone with competence lead the country.
He could not find one whom he expected to carry on and so he showed his interest to run for the re-election. The campaign began in June 1956.
But his body rebelled once again as he had an attack of ileitis, an intestinal disorder and underwent a surgery. Once again, he left people wondering about his capability to carry the burden of the President’s office. Election of 1956
The Republicans showed their faith once again in Eisenhower as they gave him the ticket to run for the re-election. Democrats were still firm on their choice, putting Stevenson against Eisenhower. While the campaign was still on, an incident shocked Eisenhower.
Britain, France and Israel, all the three allies of the US carried a joint air and land attack on Egypt in October 1956. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt had seized the Suez Canal from its British and French owners, and the attack was to recapture the Suez Canal. Eisenhower was shocked because the allies had not informed him about the assault. In response to the attack, he immediately ordered the suspension of loans to Britain. Addressing American public on the national television, he said that there can be no law if the rules for friends are different than that of other nations. He condemned the assault. He quickly moved into the situation and brought an end to the Suez crisis.
Britain and France did not welcome the action of America’s interference in Suez Canal issue. American voters on the other hand got another point to continue their faith in him. Improved health also raised his chances of emerging as a winner. History repeated itself. Eisenhower shined out through the elections and emerged a winner with a greater margin than that of 1952
IInd term as President
Civil Rights
Once again the White House had Eisenhower as its occupant. During his second term, he insisted on an end to the racial discrimination against blacks. But his efforts were wrecked by an incident in Arkansas. The Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus used force to restrict the black students from entering the Little Rock Central High School. To deal with that crisis and in order to protect the black students, Eisenhower had to send an Army unit.
The Techno – War
Technology was taking big strides in the 1950s, particularly the space technology. Soviet Union took the first leap by launching Sputnik 1 in 1957, which was followed by Sputnik 2, bigger than the previous artificial satellite, in a time less than one month. America was shocked as the Soviet technology had literally invaded America’s pride. To beat the Soviets and keep ahead in technology, Eisenhower ordered to speed up the launching of a new space program.
Happenings in IInd term
Eisenhower proposed what was known as the Eisenhower Doctrine, which was also approved by the Congress. Accordingly, America pledged financial and military aid to the Middle Eastern Nations that asked for help against Communist attack. Subsequently, Eisenhower sent troops to rescue Lebanon against the rebellion forces. Continuing his acts to establish peace and sustain peace, he also sent the US Navy to help convoy supplies from Taiwan to Quemoy and Matsu island. This step contributed to end a serious threat to Taiwan.
A business recession occurred in late 1950s. The number of talented unemployed individuals cropped up in America. The systems view said that the economy had improved and that it was still improving but somehow the business class still felt between the rocks. In such atmosphere, the midterm elections were held in November 1958. Americans held the Republicans responsible for recession and that wave helped the Democrats to win, acquiring a vast majority in the Congress.
On international front, Nikita Khrushchev, the successor of Stalin showed interest in meeting Eisenhower in a summit meeting in Paris. Khrushchev visited America in 1959.
But Eisenhower could not visit Soviet Union. The reason was an American spy plane that flew over the Russian territory. Just before Eisenhower left for Paris to attend the Summit, the Soviets shot that spy plane. Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower, which he denied.
Ultimately, Khrushchev walked out of the summit and withdrew his invitation to Eisenhower to visit Soviet Union.
Breaking political as well as economical relations with Cuba was another major incident during Eisenhower’s Presidency. Fidel Castro became the dictator of Cuba and declared his country as a Communist state. He also seized all properties of US owned companies in Cuba.
Graceful Retirement
The elections came once again in 1960 and Eisenhower had complete faith in Nixon as his successor. The Democrats placed John F Kennedy, a young Senator from Massachusetts. Eisenhower had a personal reputation, which could help him win an election but his party failed to convert his personal loyalty to pass on the heritage to Nixon. Eisenhower gracefully passed the most powerful position – the US Presidency, into the hands of John F. Kennedy, a Democrat.
Life after Retirement
Leaving the White House, Eisenhower chose to settle in his farmhouse at Gettysburg. Often he would stay at Palm Springs, California. On days with no special engagement, he raised cattle, wrote books, played golf. At times he also passed his time doing what he loved, fishing and painting.
A massive heart attack placed a limit to active participation in public affairs. Until 1968, he had a series of heart attacks. His health was on a down track. This man had preferred to worn out and tear out rather than rust out. His body was taking the toll now for the stress it had dealt with during his active years in military and in White House.
Death
Seldom people are able to convert their potential into a real life experience. Eisenhower was such a rare individual who exhausted his capabilities. The spirit within this person was contented with what it had contributed to the world through him, and freed itself on March 28, 1969. The great warrior and equally effective President, Dwight David Eisenhower died in a military hospital in Washington DC, leaving his wife Mamie behind. Mamie passed away on November 1, 1969.
History reveals that at every instance of war, the politicians are the ones who give birth to it, seldom does it happen that a war gives birth to a politician. But some men are born to be an exception to every rule. Dwight Eisenhower, the man who rose to the pinnacle of political power as the 34th President of the United States of America was certainly a rare combination of a great warrior and an efficient politician.
The story of a man, who spent 37 of his valuable years in military service, entering as a Second Lieutenant and reaching the supreme position in the US Army.
Like a ray of light that conquers darkness effortlessly, this man, heading the Allied Forces, cleared his way through the German troops and emerged as an unparalleled hero of World War II. Playing a key-role as the Supreme Commander of NATO forces to destroy the Communist aggression, he re-established the major part of the world as a free enterprise.
Responding to the call of his nation, Eisenhower reached the heights of any man’s aspiration as he served for two peaceful terms as the US President.
October 14, 1890 Dwight D. Eisenhower was born at Denison, Texas.
June 14, 1911 Entered the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York.
June 12, 1915 Graduated from West Point.
September 1915 Commissioned as a Second Lieutenant.
July 1, 1916 Married Mamie Geneva Doud of Denver, Colorado. Promoted to First Lieutenant
May 15, 1917 Promoted as a Captain.
September 24, 1917 Birth of first son, Doud Dwight Eisenhower.
October 14, 1918 Promoted to temporary Lieutenant Colonel.
July 2, 1920 Promoted to permanent rank of Major.
August 1927 to June 1928 Graduated from Army War College, Washington DC.
September 1935 to December 1939 Assistant Military Advisor to Philippines Government.
March 11, 1941 Promoted as Colonel (temporary)
April 1942 Appointed as Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division for General George Marshall.
June 1942 Appointed as Commanding General, European Theater, London, England.
November 1942 Designated as Commander-in-Chief, Allied Forces, North Africa.
December 1943 Appointed as Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Forces.
November 19, 1945 Designated as Chief of Staff, US Army.
June 7, 1948 Sworn as President of Columbia University.
December 16, 1950 Supreme Allied Commander, NATO forces.
June 4, 1952 Announced his candidacy for US Presidency, as a Republican candidate.
November 4, 1952 Elected for nomination in President’s race, in the Republican convention.
January 20, 1953 to January 20, 1961 Served the nation as US President for two terms of Presidency.
January 1961 to March 1969 Retired and lived at Gettysburg in a farm.
March 28, 1969 General Eisenhower died of a heart failure in Washington and was buried in Abilene.
• The only way to win World War III is to prevent it.
• I hate war as only as a soldier who has lived it can, only as one who has seen its brutality, its stupidity.
• I like to believe that people in the long run are going to do more to promote peace than our governments. Indeed, I think that people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of their way and let them have it.
• In preparing for battle, I have always found that plans are useless, but planning indispensable.
• A vital element in keeping the peace is our military establishment. Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action, so that no potential aggressor may be tempted to risk his own destruction.
On Atomic Weapons
• Yes, of course they would be used. In any combat where these things can be used on strictly military targets and for strictly military purposes, I see no reason why they shouldn’t be used just exactly as you would use a bullet or anything else.
• The older I get the more wisdom I find in the ancient rule of taking first things first. A process which often reduces the most complex human problems to a manageable proportion.
• Dollars and guns are no substitutes for brains and will-power.
