"He was of an active, restless, indefatigable genius even almost to the last, and always slept little to his death, seldom going to sleep till two, three or four o’clock in the morning, and seldomer to bed, often continuing his studies all night, and taking a nap in the day. His temper was melancholy…"
Waller, his first biographer, has described Hooke excellently. But these words equally describe Isaac Newton. Both the scientists contributed equally in the development of modern science. But Robert Hooke did not earn fame like Newton. Both were influenced by each other, but later, they became bitter enemies. Newton could impress the entire scientific community and Fellows of the Royal Society better than Hooke.
The first debate between Hooke and Newton happened in 1672, when Newton presented his theory that white light was composed of other colors. He presented this just before he became a fellow of the society. Hooke was a curator of the society then. He had his own wave theory of light. He claimed that Newton’s idea was not clear, and it needed more details. Hooke, the only Fellow, challenged Newton, who was equally tempered as him. Newton became furious and declared to withdraw from the Society. The secretary of the Society, Henry Oldenburg was completely impressed by Newton. He offered an apology for the behavior of an ‘unnamed member,’ that was Hooke. Thus, Newton established his place in the Society and the roots of disputes with Hooke.
The next confrontation between Hooke and Newton surfaced openly in 1679, when Hooke came up with a complete ‘Theory of Heavens’. At that time, the idea of gravity and its force of attraction were a common topic of interest. Newton, Halley, Wren and Hooke were all trying to reveal the hidden truth behind gravitation. Despite a considerably long correspondence to remove their differences, things between them did not settle. The topic of the initial letters was the old, 'trajectory problem'; what way would an object follow falling to the Earth. Newton suggested that the trajectory would be a spiral, which was a mistake. Hooke highlighted the issue at the Society meetings, announcing Newton was wrong. This infuriated Newton who felt that Hooke had no right to show his letters to the Society or to declare him wrong. Correspondence ceased between them at this point.
Although, Hooke once again wrote to Newton, but of no avail. This important letter dated January 6, 1680, shows that Hooke had suggested the theory of gravity. He used this letter as an evidence when he alleged Newton of robbing him of his theory. Newton did not react. Then Hooke appealed to Halley to make things clear. Halley and Hooke had long discussions about Hooke’s idea of gravity. But Hooke’s request put him in odd situation as he himself had contributed in the publication of two volumes of Newton’s Principia Mathematicia, where the ‘Theory of Universal Gravitation’ finds a place in detail. Although he wrote to Newton : "He says, you had the notion from him, though he owns the Demonstration of the Curves generated thereby to be wholly your own : how much of this is so you know best, as likewise what you have to do in this matter, only Mr. Hooke seems to expect you should make some mention of him in the preface, which, it is possible, you may see reason to prefix."
But, Newton denied of having accused Halley. In the following letters, Halley tried to clarify that Hooke did not complain or lay any claim to the entire theory. But Newton refused to write the third volume of the Principia. Halley dropped the issue, considering that Newton’s action would lead to a great loss for mankind. Newton won the battle and presented his Principia, without a single reference to Hooke, to the Royal Society. The entire episode was a wild blow to the image of Hooke. Finally Hooke – Newton rivalry ended in Newton’s victory over Hooke. But now the scientific community has realized that Hooke had equally contributed to the theory of gravitation. Ironically, he received an acknowledgement he deserved, only posthumously.
Lost Evidences
Today, no pictures exist of Robert Hooke. The portraits of Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke find a mention by the German antiquarian and scholar Zacharias von Uffenbach, who visited the Royal Society. Today, Boyle’s portrait survives but none of Hooke’s. Even, in 1710, when Richard Waller edited Hooke’s works for the society after Hooke’s death, he could not get any picture to place on the cover page of the final volume.
When Hooke was at the peak of his creativity, his friend John Aubrey described him : "He is but of middling stature, something crooked, pale faced, and his face but little below, but his head is large, his eye full and popping, and not quick; a grey eye. He has a delicate head of hair, brown, and of an excellent moist curl."
Richard Waller, who was close to Hooke during his last days, wrote :
"As to his person, he was but despicable, being very crooked, though I have heard from himself, and others, that he was strait till about 16 years of age… when he grew away by frequent practicing with a Turn-Lath… He was always very pale and lean, and laterly nothing but skin and bone, with a meager aspect, his eyes grey and full, with a sharp ingenious look whilst younger, his nose but thin, of a moderate height and length; his mouth meanly wide, and upper lip thin, his chin sharp, and forehead large, his head of a middle size. He wore his own hair of a dark brown color, very long and hanging neglected over his face uncut and lank…"
Léonardo of London
The Great Fire in the 17th century destroyed the London City. Hooke, a man without any architecture education or practical training in building was appointed as the surveyor of the city. Robert Hooke’s diary in the 1670s is the proof of his commitments to the Surveyorship. He proposed a new ground plan for the city almost before the embers were cold. In those days, it was customary to appoint ‘gentleman’ for the development of the city. Another scientist and his friend Christopher Wren accompanied Hooke. Wren was appointed to the parallel post of the surveyor to the King. These two scientists were to be responsible for designing the posh estates of the metropolis, which was including the royal and principal city buildings. When diverted from mathematics and science to architecture, almost full-time, by 1675, Hooke handled both the fronts to run his Surveyorship and architectural practice combined with consistent scientific research.
What made this untrained ‘gentleman’ a world-class architect? There were certain forces that made Hooke a considerable figure in the field of architecture. First of all, classical architecture was very formulative and Hooke, having knowledge of Latin and Euclidean geometry, could master Vitruvius’ De Architectra Libri Decem. Secondly, he had good vision for proportion, a natural good taste for designing, and good imaginative powers combined with his scientific grasp of thrusts that could produce architecture of genius. He was genuinely bestowed with the skills of architecture and some examples of his art are still remarkable, including Physician’s College and Bedlam Hospital. He authorized the safety aspect and street widths of junior architect’s designs, intending to build up the new London City more fire-proof than the one destroyed.
Hooke received a commission to provide drawings of his own. He proved his mettle as a good administrator, suggesting safety regulations, designer buildings and by organizing tradesmen and contractors to keep a check, which pleased the clients. He designed many magnificent creations. The greatest independent ones were the Royal College of Physicians and the Bethlehem Hospital or ‘Bedlam’. With Wren, he created fabulous building, including the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and the Fire Monument.
The Bedlam Hospital was an architectural masterpiece. It remained as the landmark of London for the next century and demolished in the early 19th century. It was an accommodation of the mentally ill, with an individual cell for each patient. This led the comic author Ned Ward to comment fingering at the hospital’s governors, "I think they were mad to build so costly a college for such a crack brained society." Today, out of Hooke’s creations all that survives are only two statues. Once they were erected at the entrance of the hospital. It was the frightening images of the crazy brothers – Raving Mania and Melancholy Mania, now resided at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
In 1680, Hooke created Ragley Hall, the house of the Earl and Countess of Yarmouth. It was the earliest and one of the most beautiful, among the great Palladian country houses of England. Its specialty is the perfect symmetry of architecture, still intact except the addition of a portico by an architect Wyatt exactly after one century. Among the other beautiful features, there is the main formal garden, covered with rose terraces. The rest of the garden, approximate 27-acre, is decorated with shrubs, trees and green lawns. There is a small lake, constructed in 1625, a cricket pitch, a conference hall, private and corporate entertainment facilities. Ragley Hall, a unique and a spectacular sculpture of Hooke, still exist at Warwickshire.
Hooke, was a multifaceted personality, in fact a skilful architect, a competent administrator and a planner. And the major achievement for Hooke was, his architectural creations happened parallel to his scientific experiments like experimenting on respiration, flames, vibrations; measuring the stellar parallax and improving the design of watches! Hooke’s best feature was his skill to keep himself balanced in both fields, science and architecture, magnificently.
"Saturday April the 10th 1697…I began this day to write the history of my own life…"
At the fag end of life, an old man, sitting over the desk opens a diary. Under the dull light, he begins writing the gist of his entire life:
"…Wherein I will comprise as many remarkable passages, as I can remember or collect out of such memorials as I have kept in writing, or are in the Registers of the Royal Society; together with all my Inventions, Experiments, Discoveries, Discourses, which I have made, the time when the manner how, and means by which, with the success and effect of them, together with the State of my Health, my Employments and Studies, my good or bad Fortune, my Friends and Enemies,…all which shall be the truth of the Matter of Fact, so far as I can be informed by my Memorials or my own Memory, which Rule I resolve not to transgress."
That old man was the great, world-renowned scientist the world now knows as Robert Hooke.
The Son of a Clergyman
Robert Hooke was born on July 18, 1635, at 12:00 pm, in a small town of Freshwater, Isle of Wight in England. He was baptized the following day. Robert’s father, John Hooke had been a curate of the local Church of All Saints since 1626. John had fulfilled different curacies on the Island since 1610. This historical church still stands at the end of a road, named ‘Hooke Road’ after Robert Hooke. There is a small museum here, dedicated to him.
John Hooke came from a place named Hooke in Hampshire. His family had deep roots in the place, as their ancestors had lived there for over a few centuries, i.e., more than 300 years. Perhaps, Robert’s ancestors had adopted the surname ‘Hooke’ after the village of their ancestors. One of the two uncles of Robert were also clergymen in the same Church. The baptismal register in the church still exists.
A Brilliant Brain in A Fragile Frame
Robert was a weak child from his birth. During his infancy, he survived smallpox, but the disease left him scarred – physically and emotionally for the rest of life. The first seven years of his life were troublesome. Even his parents doubted if he would ever survive because the child suffered from headaches, dizziness, colds, insomnia, and indigestion. The only food he could digest was milk.
Writes his first biographer, Waller : "…all this time his chief food was milk, or things made thereof, and fruits; no flesh in the least agreeing with his weak constitution."
In his early years, Robert was too weak to receive regular schooling. But his curiosity, instinctive interest, and power of observation did not deprive him from gaining knowledge from his surroundings. He was all eyes and ears to his surroundings and hence developed by his quality of learning about things himself.
A Mechanic’s Mind – An Artist’s Heart
In his boyhood, Robert was, "very sprightly and active in running and leaping, though very weak as to any robust exercise". The young boy began to show remarkable interest and skill in mechanical toys. The island called Isle of Wight was full of a variety of habitats and rich fossil contents. Robert grew up in an environment that provided him an opportunity to develop his insight and intellect. The family budget was a very stringent one and there was no private income for the family. Thus, the responsibility of Robert's education was taken up by John Hooke. Robert’s father wanted him to follow the family tradition and proceeded to prepare him for the Church. But recurrent headaches and the ill condition of the boy hindered his learning. His father took great pains over his education, but as it seemed impossible, John Hooke lay aside all the thoughts of raising him up as a scholar. As a result, Robert’s further education was totally neglected and he was left on his own likings and resources.
Though being physically sick, his mental abilities were far beyond his father’s imagination. He inventive ability began to manifest itself when he started making mechanical toys. He constructed a model warship with rigging and guns that could be fired. This apparatus was about three feet long. Once, he saw an old brass clock broken to pieces. After studying the pieces closely, he decided to build his own clock. The little boy astonished everyone by making a working clock out of wood and a sundial. He also made a small ship, which was a yard long. He would sail it on the broad stretch of the river water just over the hill from his father’s church.
Robert was not only an inventor but a creator too. He had an artist’s heart. At an early age, he had revealed an aptitude for drawing. There was a painter named John Hoskins at Freshwater. Robert would often pay a visit to Hoskins and would observe the painter closely. A question that obsessed his mind was : ‘Why can’t I do so, too ?’ So he began to collect the required material including chalk, coal and pencil. Then he tried to copy Hoskins’ pictures, which were hung up in his parlor. Robert succeeded in making exact copies of several paintings of John Hoskins.
In London
The development of young Robert coincided with his father’s suicide. Robert was only 13, when his father, who was much afflicted with cough, palsy, jaundice and dropsy for the last several years, hanged himself. This event left a deep scar on the teenager’s mind.
On October 17, 1648, John Hooke was buried at Freshwater. Orphaned, Robert left his native village with a heavy heart and £100, as inheritance from his father. But he did not use this sum and went to London to become an apprentice to Sir Peter Lely, whose reputation as a fashionable portrait painter had already been established. Robert did not give his £100, for a premium to Lely, as intended by his father. He soon realized that he could learn all that he required by himself. He developed his artistic skills in a very short period of time. He stayed for a little while with Lely as his weak constitution could not bear the smell of the paints, which effected his mind. Soon he left Lely’s place, still in possession of his £100, to become a student at Westminster School.
This was the turning point of his life.
At Westminster, he developed an intimate acquaintance with the headmaster of the school, Dr Richard Busby. Robert’s remarkable intelligence and deep interest in mechanical things did not escape the eyes of Dr Busby, the most feared man among the students. His reputation was that of a strict principal, but there was no threat for Robert. Dr Busby recognized the special abilities in the enthusiastic pupil and encouraged him to study mathematics, particularly geometry. While at the school, Robert mastered the first six books of Euclid in a single week ! Dr Busby got involved with him to such an extent that he took Robert into his own house.
During the school years, Robert kept himself busy with the mechanical problems, but not completely. His interest in mechanics could not prevent him from getting a competent knowledge of Latin and Greek. At school, he also developed ‘some insight into Hebrew and some other Oriental languages.’ Meanwhile, he was also attracted towards music and learnt to play the organ; this love remained unshattered throughout his life.
Oxford – The Door to Success
By the age of 18, Robert went to Christ Church, Oxford, having a secure place of a chorister, ‘which was a pretty good maintenance.’ His career blossomed during his stay at Oxford. It was the beginning of his voyage in the field of science. He studied biology, dissection, astronomy, mechanics and the possibilities of flying. Wilkins, the warden of Wadham College then, took great interest in the young boy. He gave him his book Mathematicall Magick, to enhance his knowledge. He did his astronomical studies under the guidance of Dr Seth Ward, Savilian Professor of Astronomy.
Another important figure in Robert’s career was Dr Thomas Willis. Robert worked under the assistance of Dr Willis in his researches in chemistry. Dr Willis was very happy with Robert’s progress in chemistry. He wanted him to become more acquainted with the subject, and introduced him to the then established scientist Robert Boyle.
When the Royal Society of London, the foremost institution aiming at the progress of science was founded in 1650, two groups actively participated in the development of the institute. Among these groups, one was from Oxford and the other was from Gresham College, London.
Boyle had moved to Oxford in 1653 and, within a year, had set up his chemistry laboratory, where he would work for the next 14 years. It was a good opportunity for Robert Hooke to assist Boyle. At Oxford, the group of virtuosi (highly skilled personalities in their fields) had formed the Experimental Philosophical (old version of ‘scientific’) Club. Many foremost figures in the new wave of experimental philosophy were among its members. They held weekly meetings at the lodging of Robert Boyle. Hooke started attending the meetings in 1655.
Hooke, later expressed his views on such meetings: "At these meetings, which were about the year 1655, (before which time I knew little of them), divers experiments were suggested, discours’d and try’d with various successes, tho’ no other account was taken of the but what particular persons perhaps did for the help of their own memories, so that many excellent things have been lost, some few only by the kindness of the author’s have since been made public; among these may be reckon’d the Honorable Mr. Boyle’s Pneumatick Engine and Experiments, first printed in the year 1660. For in 1658 or 9, I contriv’d and perfected the air-pump for Mr Boyle, having first seen a contrivance for that purpose made for the same honorable person by Mr Gratorix, which was too gross to perform any great matter."
Assisting Boyle
At Oxford, Hooke was not completely occupied with chemistry; at the same time, he would also carry out his mechanical experiments. He developed schemes for flying, which he had conceived while he was at Westminster School. As he wrote in his diary : "I contriv’d and made many trials about the art of flying in the air, and moving very swift on the land and water, of which I shew’d several designs to Dr Wilkins then warden of Wadham College. At the same time made a module, which by the help of springs and wings, rais’d itself in the air; but the muscles of a man’s body were not sufficient to do anything considerable of that kind. I apply’d my mind to contrive a way to make artificial muscles; divers designs whereof I shew’d also at the same time to Dr. Wilkins, but was in many of my trials frustrated of my expectations."
In the same year, Hooke invented a ‘flying chariot’, as a part of his flying experiments. It is said to have supported itself in air for a short while. Furthermore, he made Boyle’s famous air pump. It was Boyle’s idea, but the construction part was Hooke’s. When Hooke described it in the meeting of Oxford virtuosi, the members immediately recognized the mettle in him. Now, it became clear that Hooke was not only a laboratory assistant to Boyle, but also an intimate member of the scientific circle. Hooke made a number of new friends at Oxford, like John Aubrey, Thomas Millington, Peter Pett, Christopher Wren and George Castle – none of them were above 40.
Hooke’s diary is a clear witness of his good relationship with Robert Boyle. The friendship between 28-year-old Boyle and his 23-year-old assistant remained unbroken. Boyle’s New Experiments Physico Mechanical has a depiction of mechanical skill of improving the air pump of Otto Gratorix. After leaving Boyle’s assistantship he maintained regular correspondence with him. When Boyle built a new laboratory at his sister Lady Ranelagh’s house in Pall Mall, London in 1671, Robert Hooke frequently visited the place and was welcomed warmly.
When Boyle died, he made a will according to which Robert Hooke inherited Robert Boyle's microscope, loadstone and many other gifts. Today, the detailed record of the progress of the chemical researches at Boyle’s Oxford laboratory is not available. It is not possible to say how far Hooke was helpful to Boyle in his successful researches and discoveries. But something that is quite significant is the fact that most of Boyle’s important works, including his Sceptical Chymist, published in 1661, belong to this Oxford period. It can be assumed, to quite an extent, that Hooke’s genius and technical skill played a major role in his patron’s success.
The Curator of the Royal Society
In 1661, Hooke published an article on capillary attraction. It received an attention from the members of the Royal Society in London. Many of them personally knew Hooke. The main purpose of the Society was to develop new experimental techniques in philosophy. They needed a permanent official, who could take responsibilities of the investigations, performed at the weekly meetings; conduct the experiments and could check the validity of the researches of other scientists.
The following year, Hooke was selected for this position. His appointment as a Curator of Experiments, is recorded in the Journal Book of the Society, "November 12, 1662. Sir Robert Moray proposed Mr. Hooke as a curator of experiments to the Society; who being unanimously accepted it, it was ordered, that Mr. Boyle should have the thanks of the Society for dispensing with him for their use; and that Mr. Hooke should come and sit amongst them, and both bring in every day of the meeting three or four experiments of his own, and take care of such others, as should be mentioned to him by the Society."
This was the first step towards Hooke’s long-term association with the Society, to last for the next four decades, till Hooke’s death. Initially, his role was that of an employee, not a Fellow of the Society. At the age of 27, he accepted the position he deserved to develop his interests and knowledge. His role in the Society was to report and demonstrate important experiments at the weekly meetings. The topics covered almost all the disciplines; chemistry, astronomy, biology, microscopy, medicine etc. Hooke, proved that ‘a man is a mind with a body, not a body with a mind’, and that he could perform at his best.
His position proved to be beneficial for his own development, as his occupation almost forbade a systematic investigation of any problem. Hooke’s duties were to serve the group, having wide interests in each and any aspect of natural phenomena. Many from this group were performing experiments for nothing but mere curiosity and amusement! The early records of the Society’s activities do not present many serious experiments. For the much confused activities and interests of the Society, Hooke had to conduct various investigations. The task was a very tiresome one, but he managed to do his duty. In the first year, many brilliant experiments took place and were coupled with many useful suggestions for improving the work of other scientists.
Hooke’s efforts to shape the Society caught the attention of the other members, and on June 3, 1663, he was officially announced a fellow of the Society and made FRS, exempted from all charges. On October 19, the same year, he was assigned an additional job to keep the Society’s repository in Gresham College. Hooke’s responsibilities doubled. The Society held the meeting four days a week, so the college authorities invited Hooke to lodge in their place. He got an accommodation in the college premises and also an allowance of £1 a week.
Hurdles Surpassed
In May 1664, Isaac Barrow, a professor of Geometry at Gresham College, submitted his resignation. The society highlighted Hooke as a candidate for the vacant post, hoping he would secure the position. But unfortunately the results were not in his favor. With a dispute over the right choice for professorship, the issue ended with the decision in favor of Dr Arthur Dacres.
This was a bitter experience for Hooke. In June, the same year, one of the wealthy merchants of London, Sir John Cutler put an offer. As per the offer, Hooke was to be given £50 per annum for delivering lectures at the Gresham, in addition to accommodation. Consequently, the society officially nominated Hooke as the curator with a salary of £80 per annum, to be increased by subscriptions every year. By September, Hooke made Gresham his residence. But in November, Hooke was in for a big shock when he came to know that he would get only £30 per annum! Hooke kept his fingers crossed with the only hope that he would be given an additional £50 per year for life from Cutler. But it did not materialize.
In the beginning of 1665, the Gresham Committee held the decision on Hooke’s petition that Dr. Dacres’ election was invalid. According to it, Hooke was legally elected Professor of Geometry. Now, Hooke had lodging at Gresham College, and two positions, a professor and a curator at the same time. His life was settled by 1665. But his diary stands witness to the fact that he was not remunerated his salary regularly and also that Sir John Cutler did not stay true to his words. It led to a lengthy chancery suit and the court gave the judgment in Hooke’s favor on July 18, 1696.
During all this period, Hooke continued performing his duties and proved to be one of few contemporary lecturers who did justice to their job. He gave a series of lectures on various subjects, including algebra at Gresham and the Cutlerian Lectures, which covered a wide range of topics.
Grace Hooke
Two G’s played an important role in his life – Grace and Gresham. The latter was the place where he spent 39 years of his life, and the former, his niece with whom he fell in love.
After conformation of his posting at Gresham, Hooke made Gresham his permanent residence. He was 29 and it was high time to marry. But since lecturers were not allowed to marry then, Hooke never married. In his youth, Hooke had developed the habit of jotting down the private and public affairs of his life in a dairy. The diary reveals that he used to exercise regularly until he sweated. But he could not build up a masculine body that would attract the opposite sex. He had a string of housekeepers; Nell Young was the first among them. Hooke had a friendly relationship with Nell. It is interesting that he continued it even after her marriage. He met her for haircuts and hot chocolates. Some notes in his diary carry a Venus symbol, which implies an orgasm.
After Nell, he employed many housekeepers, but the Venus symbol reoccurred, after his niece Grace took charge of housekeeping. Hooke fell in love only once during his lifetime. Grace was the only person he could fall back upon, for warmth and sentimental satisfaction. He wrote on March 5, 1677, "Grace perfect in time omne (Venus Symbol). Slept well."
Grace was good but not passionate for Hooke. Though obsessed with her, Hooke’s thrust for love never fulfilled. He remained a lonely person, forever. References indicate that he was ‘scarred to the point of ugliness’ and not much liked among the ladies due to his ‘twistedness, which grew with age’. An arrogant and introvert person, there was a great deal of insecurity within. He lived with it and continued loving Grace, his first and last love, till his last breath.
Presenting Micrographia
The year 1665 is considered a landmark in his life as his Micrographia, the essence of his scientific career, was published. With his all-time creation, Hooke astonished the contemporary scientists. It turned out to be the first ever-complete book on microscopy, which documented beautiful pictures of objects based on observations under the microscope, made by Hooke himself. Another interesting feature of it was a number of fundamental biological discoveries. A reputed scientist of that period, Samuel Pepys wrote in his diary after reading the book : "Before I went to bed I sat up till two o’clock in my chamber reading Mr. Hooke’s Microscopical Observations, the most ingenious book that I ever read in my life."
Reactions to this first ever graphically sound book had already started pouring in at the society meetings. Yet the publication was possible only after the society’s approval. It earned Hooke overnight popularity.
Plague broke out in Europe, interrupting the regular weekly meetings of the Royal Society. Hooke accompanied Sir William Petty and Dr Wilkins to Durdans, at Epsom. They stayed at the residence of the Earl of Berkeley and carried out numerous experiments. When Evelyn visited their place, their work and character impressed him much. He remarked:
"August 4, 1665… I call’d at Durdans, where I found Dr. Wilkins, Sir Wm. Petty, and Mr. Hooke, contriving chariots, new rigging for ships, a wheel for one to run races in, and other mechanical inventions; perhaps three such persons together were not to be found elsewhere in Europe for parts and ingenuity."
London Burns
In 1666, Hooke returned to London and continued lectures at Gresham College. The Royal Society once again met after a span of interruption on March 14. England had just recovered from plague. As if that was not enough, the Great Fire broke out in the capital, on September 2. The catastrophe lasted for four days, turning a major part of ancient London to ashes.
Hooke was lucky because Gresham College was among the few buildings that survived. The city authorities had no alternative other than utilizing the college building as a temporary headquarters for administrative and other official purposes. This event brought out an architect, no other but Hooke. The officials of London entrusted Hooke and assigned him urgent additional duties, totally different from his basic subject. He took the challenge to rebuild the burnt city. Within 17 days, he produced a model for the re-planning of London. His model was based on a ‘chess-board’ street plan, which was approved by the Royal Society. Three days later, on September 21, the Common Council passed it. Hooke’s abilities and confidence did not go unnoticed from the eyes of the officials and he was appointed as a city surveyor on October 4, with two other surveyors, Peter Mills and Edward Jermyn. The King of England, Charles II, was the founder and patron of the Society. He appointed well-known architects Christopher Wren, Hugh May and Roger Pratt to work with ‘such Surveyors and Artificers as should be appointed by the City’. Now, Hooke’s portfolio extended from ‘in-vitro’ to ‘in-vivo’.
The City of His Dreams
He surveyed the streets, which were destroyed badly during the fire, with other three commissioners. But these surveys were not free of charge! For each ‘view’ of a house foundation, the owner had to pay 6.s. 8d, the only resource of salary for Hooke and other surveyors. Hooke was the most active and efficient surveyor of his team. He superintended more buildings than any of his colleagues did. The Common Council decided to give Hooke a salary of £150 per annum. As per Hooke’s diary, for many years he was completely busy with his architectural duties, which included surveying, superintending, rebuilding and attending the various committees appointed for different tasks. Hooke did real creative work and shaped London, in a new way.
This sudden diversion in his career interrupted his scientific researches badly. At the Royal Society meetings, Hooke’s frequent absences created a bad impression on the other fellows. But his contribution was sound and it facilitated him with a preparator, a person to assist him in his researches. It was impossible to ride on two horses at the same time. Though being alleged that he was neglecting his office as a Curator, the ‘architect’ continued creating a London of his dreams.
His untiring efforts for years finally brought life to the moribund state of London by the end of 1670s. The diary shows that ’70s and ’80s were the most active and productive years of his life. The designer of King Street and Queen Street was a well-known architect too. At this stage of his life, his appearance was different from the other contemporary personalities. Old references state that he was very pale, lean and moderately tall person, whose body consisted of nothing but skin and bone. His eyes were grey, with a sharp ingenious look; his nose was sharp and moderately long. His mouth was slightly wide, with a thin upper lip and a sharp chin, a glow of knowledge reflecting on his face. Famous people wore suitable wigs in those days. On the contrary, he wore his own hair of dark brown color; very long and hanging over his lanky face. He walked with a stoop and very fast with great deal of activity and enthusiasm. Hooke continued his duties as an architect and a curator of the society.
Newton Controversy
In 1674, through his Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth by Observations; he explained the theory of planetary motion based on the principle of inertia. Attempting to prove that the Earth moves in an ellipse round the Sun in 1672, six years later, he put forth the inverse square law of gravitation to explain planetary motions. In a letter to Newton in 1679, he sought an opinion on his proposed theory of gravitation, "…of compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent (inertial motion) and an attractive motion towards the central body…my supposition is that the attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the distance from the center reciprocal…"
But he could not support his conjectures with solid mathematical proof, and was not credited for the theory of gravitation. He had claimed it prior to Newton but Newton did not leave a single reference to Hooke in his Principia Mathematicia, which led to a bitter dispute between Hooke and Newton. Newton’s irritation led to his suppressing of his another well-known publication, Opticks until Hooke’s death.
Last Researches
In the same year, he published his Animadaversions and two years later he published A description of Helioscopes. In 1677, Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society died. Hooke succeeded him and resumed with more responsibilities. During his last decades, he was occupied with his architectural duties, scientific researches and the secretarial job with the Royal Society. In 1678, he published his treatise De Potentia Restitutiva. This work contained modern theories of elasticity and the kinetic theory of gases. His two works, Cometa and Microscopium were also published in the same year. From 1679 to ’82, he edited and published the Philosophical Collections in place of Oldenburg’s Philosophical Transactions. He turned out to be the greatest mechanic of his age, making many improvements in astronomical instruments and in watches and clocks. He formulated the theory of planetary movements as a mechanical problem.
In 1684, he devised a practicable telegraphic system and constructed the first Gregorian telescope. He also invented the spiral spring in watches and screw divided quadrant. He constructed the first arithmetical machine. He coined the term cell, after microscopic observations of plant tissues.
Painful Decades
He spent his last years at the Gresham College, London. From 1680 onwards, Hooke became more reserved and less enthusiastic towards his life. He carried out his experiments and attended every meeting of the Royal Society, but his colleagues felt that Hooke was becoming less communicative and less interactive. If he felt slighted or patronized, his highly-strung pride would make him smolder. Among the members of the Royal Society, he disliked Henry Oldenburg, whom he called a ‘mischief–maker’ and Flamsteed. At the meetings, he and Flamsteed were like ‘cat and dog’ always fighting with each other. Perhaps, Hooke was suffering from an inferiority complex in his last years that emerged from the feeling of injustice towards him. The last three decades of his life brought flames of loneliness, injustice, disappointment, and an unexpressed pain in his heart.
The year 1687 was darkest for him, as Principia was published by his competitor Newton, but without any recognition to Hooke ! Hooke’s references and contributory notes were out of the final version of Principia. Hooke was open-minded and transparent by temperament. But his lack of political tactics proved his enemy, inviting the most unfortunate phase of his life. This event shattered Hooke, leaving a trauma hovering over his entire existence for the rest of his life. Feeling cheated, a genius scientist turned into a "...melancholy, mistrustful and jealous (person), which were increased upon him with his years."The year 1687 was darkest for him, as Principia was published by his competitor Newton, but without any recognition to Hooke ! Hooke’s references and contributory notes were out of the final version of Principia. Hooke was open-minded and transparent by temperament. But his lack of political tactics proved his enemy, inviting the most unfortunate phase of his life. This event shattered Hooke, leaving a trauma hovering over his entire existence for the rest of his life. Feeling cheated, a genius scientist turned into a "...melancholy, mistrustful and jealous (person), which were increased upon him with his years."
Adding to this irony, his niece Grace Hooke, who had captured the heart of the ageing scientist, died the same year. The issue of Principia already had disheartened him; Grace’s death shot up the anguish. His health declined year-after-year. Judging by some descriptions, it seems that Hooke suffered from scoliosis, a crippling degenerative disease. It led towards a stooping posture. With many other ailments, Hooke could hardly work. Swollen legs, chest pains, dizziness, extreme emaciation, insomnia, chronic headaches, giddiness and fainting took over. Although he continued his experiments before the Royal Society, he left fewer descriptions of his latest experiments. As his first biographer Waller remarks, "…yet he seldom left any full account of them to be entered, designing, as he said, to fit them himself for the Press, which he never performed."
During these difficult decades, on December 7, 1691, he took an oath for the Degree of Doctor of Physics (a seat created specially for him on warrant from Archbishop Tilliston), before Sir Charles Hedges in Doctors Commons. And in 1700, he gifted the world with his last invention, the Marine Barometer, which was described by Halley, later in the Philosophical Transactions.
The Last Renaissance Man
In the last two years, Hooke’s health gave way, leaving him almost handicapped, with possible cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Moreover, he suffered from gangrene in the leg, and partial loss of eyesight. As Waller wrote, "…but his mind stayed clear, though he became increasingly melancholy and disagreeable."
On March 3, 1703, he died in London, leaving £9,580 along with a small property on the Isle of Wight. He was buried in the ancient church of the city; St. Helen’s near the Bishop Gate Street. All the Fellows of the Royal Society attended his funeral. As he had no descendent, his properties were sold by public auction. According to a reference, these invaluable remains were purchased by an illiterate lady, Elizabeth Stevens, who could sign with only an ‘h’.
With his demise, the world lost the last Renaissance man of Europe, the English equivalent of Leonardo da Vinci of Florence; A true Renaissance man who spent his life carrying out experiments and expounding the theories of natural knowledge.
"Every great and commanding moment in the annals of the world is the triumph of some enthusiasm."
– Ralph Waldo Emerson
Enthusiasm leads a man towards the peak of creativity. Be it an artist like Leonardo da Vinci or a scientist like Robert John Hooke. England’s first experimental scientist, opened up doors to new ideas and research areas for others concerning the natural world.
Robert Hooke was a jack of all the trades. He was a mastermind of science: founder of microscopy, microbiology, meteorology, earth sciences and geology. An inventor, physicist, surveyor, astronomer and architect, he brought many towards the new disciplines of scientific researches and enlightened their first critical steps with the torches of his inventions. His arrival opened up new beginnings for exploring most of the fields in science. His involvement in each of the fields served as the starting point to a 300-year journey of discovery. A journey which many great scientists would then make.
Unfortunately, this versatile figure was not credited in the way he deserved during the last three centuries. Many of his creations were destroyed on purpose or were lost after his death. Micrographia, the world’s first comprehensive illustrated book on microscopy, won him a recognition as the ‘Inspirational Father of Modern Science’, not only in England, but also in the entire world...this was the reverence he truly deserved.
July 18, 1635
Birth of Robert Hooke in Freshwater, Isle of Wight, England.
1648
Went to London as the student of Sir Peter Lely, a painter.
Enrolled at the Westminster School.
1653
Entered the Christ Church, Oxford.
1655-62
Assisted Thomas Willis and Robert Boyle, the famous scientists.
1656
Applied the circular pendulum to watches. Refused terms of a patent negotiated by Boyle. Discovery remained unknown until 1675.
1661
Published first article on capillary action.
November 1662
Appointed Curator of Experiments at the Royal Society of London.
1663
Nominated for the MA by Lord Clarendon, the Chancellor of the Oxford University.
Elected the Fellow of the Royal Society of London.
1665
Appointed as a Professor of Geometry at Gresham College.
Publication of his famous work Micrographia.
1666
Exhibited a model for the rebuilding of the city of London after the Great Fire.
Appointed as a city Surveyor of London.
1674
Published An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth by Observations.
1676
Published the principles of spiral springs in A Description of Helioscopes.
1677
Appointed as a Secretary to the Royal Society.
1679
Publication of Isaac Newton’s work Principia Mathematicia. Hooke opposed, declaring he ‘gave Newton the first hint of this invention.’
1682
Ceased to be a Secretary at the Royal Society.
1684
Devised a practical system of Telegraphy. Constructed the first Gregorian Telescope.
1687
Grace Hooke, his niece and housekeeper died. Hooke’s performance suffered profoundly.
December 7, 1691
Received a degree of Doctor of Physic at Doctor’s Commans.
June 1696
The Royal Society offered to pay for experiments. Hooke’s health failed him.
1700
Halley described Hooke’s last invention a Marine Telescope, to the Royal society.
1702
Went partially blind and suffered from cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
March 3, 1703
Died at Gresham College, London, England.
If ever a man lived for the advancement of science through his actions and will power, but remained largely neglected, it was Robert Hooke. His contributions cover wide range of areas: microscopy, physics, architecture, astronomy, biology, mechanics and many more. Most of us have never heard or read about his great contribution to various fields. A not so attractive man, orphaned in early teens, he was discredited for his worthy ideas and researches. Many of his creations were almost destroyed or lost, perhaps willfully. About 299 years after his death, his extraordinary achievements began to be recognized.
Among the magnitudes of his contribution to modern science, the most important is Micrographia, the world’s first comprehensive illustrated book on microscopy.
The second one is the Rebuilding of London with Christoper Wren. Hooke’s researches over nearly 40 years cover a wide range of Natural Philosophy (Science).
Among his other important researches are his works on clocks, springs or elasticity of air, his theories on fossils, weather, gravity, light and air pumps.
He is best known for his study in elementary Physics through Hooke’s Law: Ut tensia, sic vis.
Here are some glimpses of his important works:
Microscopy
The first-ever microscope was discovered around 30 years before Robert Hooke’s birth. Henry Power, scientist from Yorkshire, had first published microscopical observations, and another scientist, Marcello Malphigi, had used microscope to discover the capillary vessels in the lungs of a frog. Before him, Harvey had published his theory of blood circulation. But since the invention of microscope, for 50 years, its role in fundamental scientific discoveries was not much remarkable in terms of its ability compared to telescope. In 1665, when Hooke published his Micrographia, it established the foundation of using microscopy for advancement of biological science.
Hooke was not only an observer, but also a producer of various microscopes too. When asked to make a model of the eye for demonstration by the Royal Society, he prepared one containing an iris diaphragm. It led towards an improved version of compound microscope, with iris diaphragm and independent light source. Micrographia contains the details of his improved microscope, which influenced the contemporary and fellow microscope makers, who accepted Hooke as the Father of Microscopy. A skillful mechanic, adept in making his own tools and instruments, he used to make different instruments for microscopy, astronomy, meteorology, geology, surveying and horology. He would make his own lenses and mirrors for his microscopes and telescopes.
Hooke was not in the least narrow-minded; in fact, he was always open to accept the worthy suggestions of other people. He corresponded with many pioneering microscopists of his time; one of them was Dutch scientist Antony van Leeuwenhoek. He confirmed Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of ‘minute creatures in the pepper water’, and demonstrated it to the Society on November 10, 1677. By Hooke’s confirmation, Leeuwenhoek was credited as the ‘first observer of micro-organism’. He also made a replica of Leeuwenhoek’s microscope and used it to confirm other observations sent by him. They continued their correspondence with the help of Hooke’s friend Theedore Haak, who provided an English translation of Leeuwenhoek’s letters in Dutch to Hooke. Hooke was impressed by almost illiterate, self-made scientist Leeuwenhoek and once he wrote to him that they seemed to be the "only two people contributing significantly to the field of microscopical studies".
His microscopical observations show how engineering designs of the nature could be applied to man-made artifacts. While studying bee stings and the hair on stinging nettles, he noted how these structures could be used for transferring fluids into the human body. Today, we can see the importance of his idea, with the introduction of syringes in the realm of medicine. Hooke had mentioned that, one day, improved optics and devices beyond the boundaries of the technology would be available in the coming centuries that could provide more details and specific information regarding various microscopical forms. In the modern age, proving the prophecy of Hooke, electron microscopes have surpassed the limitations imposed by the wavelength of light and the use of glass optics. A replica of Hooke’s microscope and his illumination device, the lamp that he used for microscopical study, is still on display at the Science Museum in London.
Micrographia
Hooke’s reputation in the history of biology largely depends on Micrographia, the essence of his first 30-years' researches. Within its skillfully illustrated pages, with magnificent drawings, Hooke’s remarkable microscopical observations are described in details, which led the other contemporary and fellow scientists to engage their interests in his findings.
It was printed on November 23, 1664, and was available to readers by 1665 at a lavish 30 shillings per copy. The volume was the bestseller. But some of the people also ridiculed Hooke for paying importance to such trifling pursuits. A famous satirist described Hooke as "a Sot, that has spent £2000 in microscopes to find out the nature of eels in vinegar, mites in cheese, and the blue of plums, which he has subtly found out to be living creatures."
His micro-studies of the composition of cork led him to discover the new term cell, which means a tiny bare room, like a monk’s cell. Devising the compound microscope, one of the best microscopes of his time, he described the tiniest components of living plant tissue. With his magical instrument, he demonstrated the observations of different organisms like insects, sponges, bryozoans, foraminifera and bird feathers at the Royal Society’s meetings and in this book. For the first time, he introduced the world to the view of lice, fleas and other insects. For example, he described a flea as, "adorn’d with a curiously polish’d suite of sable armor, neatly jointed".
The book covered a plethora of fields, including a series of observations and speculations on the lunar crater. Crystallography had its roots in this book, as it shows that these craters are either caused by collisions or boiling of mud. There were a few telescopic observations, describing moon and stars.
There were descriptions of a thermometer, a barometer, a wind gauge and a hygrometer. It is important to note that Hooke was the first to use freezing water as zero and the first meteorologist to keep records.
The book depicts that heat is vibratory and different from burning. The most important thing was what Hooke said nine years before John Mayow, that ‘heat needs some particular substance in the air’. He also said that this substance is one twentieth of the air and is ‘that which is fixed in saltpere’. Hooke also suggested that this substance is removed by the lungs. In short, without mentioning oxygen, Hooke had found it, but as he has not clearly mentioned the name of this substance, he did not win the credits for the discovery of oxygen, officially.
He also mentioned ‘Newton’s rings’, before Newton discovered them. He observed colored rings around the central areas of mica sheets pressed with one another. He discovered diffraction, which attracted Newton’s interest and ultimately the realm of physics was enriched by ‘Newton’s Rings’ later on. Newton’s experiments with prisms were inspired from Hooke’s Micrographia, which created disputes between the two scientists.
The book clearly shows that Hooke’s later invention of a hygrometer was based on his observations of hair from the beard of a goat. In this experiment, he realized that the hair got bent when dry, and straightened when wet.
Another experiment described in Micrographia is quiet interesting. Rayon was prepared in 1884. But around two centuries ago, Hooke had examined the silk fiber under microscope and wondered if an artificial silk could be spun from sticky substances.
Micrographia not only provides wealthy new data for science, but also illuminates the path for experimental investigations on the base of this data. Micrographia triggers off new ways for further researches in different fields. This is a landmark in the world of science. It has the depth, lucidity and artistic style like the Bible. The book opened up an invisible universe to the people for the first time. The scientific books in the contemporary age, sensory rich in the visual modality; have their roots in Micrographia – the beginning of an organized branch of microbiology and visual communication.
Flight and Spring Experiments
Hooke was fond of mechanical things since his childhood. At a very early age, he showed his mechanical skills by devising clocks, model ships, and other machines. He tried to realize artificial flight by means of mechanical contrivances. At Oxford, he surprised Dr Wilkins, who was the publisher of the books, on the use of flying machines. Hooke and Dr Wilkins made a module that raised substantially and sustained itself in the air with the help of springs and wings. This experiment inspired Hooke to research further on elasticity and springs.
Initially, Hooke tried to use human muscle power in the propulsion of a flying machine. It was not possible, so he tried to devise an artificial muscle substance. In the 17th century, materials like rubber-based elastics did not even exist. Maybe the experimental agents were metal springs and gunpowder, which sometimes figure in the 17 references to flights that have been mentioned in Hooke’s diary between 1673 and 1679. But he left no clear evidence to either a complete flying machine or any ‘artificial muscle’. But the following epithet reflects his quest to discover one :
"Dr. Croon at Royal Society read of the muscles of birds for flying. I discoursed much of it. Declared that I had a way of making artificial muscle to command the strength of 20 men. Told my way of flying by vanes (wings) tried at Wadham."
Meteorology and Astronomy
Hooke is also considered the Father of Meteorology. He had a keen interest in the weather. He tried to make instruments for furthering scientific inquiry into weather systems. He described such means and their usage. Among them, the Wheel Barometer and the Hygrometer are most important.
The first one shows the changes in the atmosphere by minute rise and fall of mercury. Hooke was the first among those who believed that hurricanes, mists; storms and fogs took place with the variations in the density of the air. He stated that if daily readings were tabulated, it was possible to forecast the weather. Hooke also created a Hydrometer for measuring humidity, an Anemometer for measuring force of wind. He also improved a Weather Clock, prepared to note the weather measurements.
Astronomy was the most extensive branch of science to which Hooke made remarkable contributions. In his Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth, published in 1674, he presented a theory of planetary motion. This theory was based on the correct principle of inertia and a balance between an outward centrifugal force and an inward gravitational attraction to the sun.
In 1676, he published his discovery of an anagram – Cediinnoopsssttuu in his A Description of Helioscopes. After two years, he published his De Potentia Bestitutiva, in which he enunciated the law : Ut Pondus Sic Tensia, meaning ‘the weight is equal to the tension’. This law is known as Hooke’s Law, and today it is more familiar as Ut Tensia, sic Vis; meaning ‘the tension is equal to the force. In his Bestitutiva, he described his most complete treatment of vibration and elasticity. His ‘Grand Unified Theory’ expresses the concern with a vibrative agency that could explain the motions of a fly’s wings, and in a wider way, the propagation of gravity in space. It is clear that Newton was inspired by this theory and presented his ‘Theory of Universal Gravitation’ in 1686.
• And as at first, mankind fell by tasting of the forbidden Tree of Knowledge, so we, their Posterity, may be in part restor’d by the same way, not only by beholding and contemplating, but by tasting too those fruits of Natural Knowledge, that we were never yet forbidden.
• The truth is, the science of Nature has already been too long made only a work of the brain and the fancy. It is now high time that it should return to the plainness and soundness of observations on material and obvious things.
• As the bare Motion of the Lungs without fresh air contributes nothing to the life of the Animal, he being found to survive as when they were not moved as when they were; so it was not the subsiding or movelessness of the Lungs, that was the immediate cause of Death, or the stopping of the Circulation of the Blood through the Lungs, but the want of a sufficient supply of fresh air.
