Biography

Johannes Gensfleisch Zum Gutenberg was born at the end of the 14th century in the city of Mainz, in Germany. While many put his year of birth as 1397, no concrete proof of this is available. His father Friele Gensfleisch had inherited a house named Zum Gutenberg and had attached the sobriquet to his name. His father was one the four accountants of the city and a person of ample means and good standing. His mother, Else Werich was the second wife of Friele and the daughter of a rich merchant. Johannes had an elder brother and sister.
Mainz, in those days, was a fairly big city full of life and activity. Trade, religion, craftsmanship seemed to have been an integral part of the city's lifestyle. A child growing up in such an atmosphere had much to learn. It appears that Johannes also received some formal education either in school or through private tuitions.
Politically, Mainz was a hotbed of activity. The city's nobility and guild (an association of craftsmen and artisans) were engaged in a constant struggle for political power over the city. The guild had no sympathy for the patricians’ demands for concessions in taxes to enable them to maintain their lifestyles. Members of the nobility who were hit hard by the taxes left the city in 1411. Friele Gutenberg was amongst them. It is not clear whether his family accompanied him. In any case he returned two years later, by which time a partial political settlement had been reached.
The patricians of Mainz, the class to which Gutenberg belonged, were a proud lot with confidence born of a longstanding ancestry of wealth and culture. They were open-minded and their horizons were constantly being widened by travel and contact with people from various countries and races. Such exposure might have helped Gutenberg develop his thinking and personality in his formative years and given him the confidence to stake his time, effort and money on a path-breaking invention. The Mayor of Mainz was one of his close relatives.
Gutenberg lost his father in 1419. Johannes by then had almost decided upon his intended field of work. Religion and scholarly studies, the two respected professions for his class of people, did not seem to attract him. Learning or practicing a craft was not thought appropriate enough for the patricians then. However, Johannes was drawn towards this very field. Mainz had then many goldsmiths of repute and it was a flourishing center for metal workmanship. His father belonged to the fellowship of coiners, which supplied gold to the archbishop for minting coins. This fraternity, surprisingly, was the exclusive domain of the patricians to such an extent that Johannes was not allowed entry as his maternal grandfather belonged to the trading class. Looking to his patrician background with its strong class bound traditions, speaks volumes of Gutenberg’s genuine interest in the subject that he chose to devote to printing innovations.
The political instability appears to have driven Gutenberg away from his native city in 1428. He reached Strasbourg where his name is mentioned in the tax records. He appears to have been reasonably well off.

Gutenberg seems to have had an industrious bent of mind. Though he lived in St. Arbogust, a suburb of Strasbourg, he never became a citizen of that place. His profession too was variously classified as ‘semi-patrician’, ‘semi-craftsman’ and ‘who serves with no-one’ in his tax returns. From what we can get of his life, he is revealed not as a dreamy, impractical inventor but rather a person who is quick witted and active, capable of protecting and fighting for his interests and also capable of vengeful behavior.
A good example of the last was when he had the leader of the guilds arrested in Strasbourg on a technicality. The case went in Gutenberg’s favor but he graciously agreed not to press charges if the sums due to him by the Mainz government be paid to him together with the arrears.
Though Mainz records show Gutenberg as unmarried, court records in Strasbourg reveal his name as an accused in a breach of promise case in 1436, filed by one Ennelin Zu der Isedrin Tur. The lady in question belonged to a respectable family. One theory holds that the case was won by the lady and a divorce immediately granted on Gutenberg’s plea and this made him eligible for a remarriage.
In an offshoot of this case Gutenberg was convicted of slander against one of the witnesses and was made to pay a fine for it.
As court records are the major source of information of that period, we know more of Gutenberg’s problems and disagreements than we do of his daily life.
Gutenberg was a talented craftsman and a good teacher too. His innovative ideas matched with a great degree of self-confidence, inspired many to invest in his enterprises. Gutenberg opened a workshop in Strasbourg, where he engaged mainly in crafts involving metalwork and also taught others on professional terms.
Andreas Dritzhen, a former student of Gutenberg and Hans Riffe, a steward at Lichtenau entered into a partnership with Gutenberg for manufacturing what is described as "mirrors" for what must have been a very significant pilgrimage called the Aachen pilgrimage. These mirrors appear to have been badges with some lines or symbols of the pilgrimage cast on them. Obviously, Gutenberg must have found a new technique of etching on them as Andreas Dritzhen and later Andreas Heilman joined the partnership. The partners invested fairly large sums of money. Of the proceeds of the enterprise, half went to
Gutenberg. The pilgrimage originally slated for 1439 was postponed for a year, jeopardizing their plans. But the partners appear to have earned enough to pay off their loans and retain their confidence in Gutenberg. The partners then took up a new undertaking. This project cloaked in secrecy may have been the harbinger of a revolutionary method in printing.
Andreas Dritzhen, one of the partners died in the Christmas of 1438. His brothers Jorg and Claus brought a law suit against Gutenberg in 1439 claiming that the latter had prevented them part ownership of the undertaking in which the deceased had put money from the joint estate of their father making them the rightful legal heirs. The partners may have agreed upon the participation of the heirs of a deceased partner in case of such an eventuality. No such agreement was, however, registered officially.
On Dritzhen's death, Gutenberg had immediately told his other partner to instruct the provider of press, Conrad Suspach, to remove ‘two small screws’ from it so that the invention remained a secret. The press happened to be lying at Dritzhen’s house and it is possible that the Dritzhen brothers had already tampered with it. The nature of the project was much debated. A goldsmith, Hans Dunne claimed that he had received 100 guilders from the partnership for ‘what had to do with printing.’
All the available details seem to imply that the invention was most likely a printing press and nearing completion. Returns were expected to be quick and plenty. No wonder then, that on one hand the heirs of Dritzhen were intent on becoming partners to the expected fortune and on the other, the existing partners were not willing to reveal much about their enterprise but used terms like ‘the work’ or ‘adventure and art’. The court records reveal that the authorities interested mainly in the financial aspect of the dispute held that as per the partnership agreement, Gutenberg had regularly paid the premiums to Dritzhen. On the contrary, the latter owed him 85 guilders. So, by paying 15 guilders to the heirs Gutenberg would have repaid Dritzhen’s investment in the project, besides he was not compelled to take the Dritzhen’s brothers as his partners. Thus, Gutenberg came off lightly from this legal wrangle.
Dritzhen’s death and the subsequent court case led to a significant slow down in Gutenberg's business activities. The partnership also may have been dissolved. In fact, not much information is available about where Gutenberg was and what he did from 1439 to 1442. Records show that he paid wine tax, stood surety for a loan for his friend, but not much besides that. In fact, besides court and government records there is no other source of information on Gutenberg's life. It is possible that these years were spent in perfecting his invention. In 1442, after a lull of three years Gutenberg again sought finances by way of a loan against his Strasbourg life annuity. He approached the St. Thomas Chapter of the Church for the same and was granted a loan.

In 1443, his sister Else died. It is likely that his brother-in-law occupied Zum Gutenberg, Johanne’s childhood home in Mainz. His sister's only child, a daughter, was married off and lived in Frankfurt. These circumstances may have prompted Gutenberg to return to Mainz. Though 1444, tax records revealed that he paid his wine tax in Strasbourg that year, another view holds that Gutenberg's house in Strasbourg may have been destroyed by the soldiers of Armagnacs, who overran the city at the behest of Emperor Friedrich III.Whatever the cause, Gutenberg appears to have returned to his native town around 1444 to 45. Gutenberg seems to have got down to serious work after settling down. In 1448, a relative Arnold Gelthus stood surety for Gutenberg for a large sum of money borrowed by him. Gutenberg did not or could not bring much back with him from Strasbourg. The press was later discovered in Strasbourg. It is possible that Gutenberg had to start from scratch as far as equipment was concerned. He may have tried to innovate, but badly needed more funds for his enterprise.
It also speaks well of Gutenberg’s reputation, which probably included his family background, that many citizens of Mainz were willing to lend or stand surety for substantial amounts. He must also have been able to convince others of the returns from his invention without revealing too much about it. It also speaks well of the people of Mainz, that they were open and receptive to innovative ideas and change. From the accounts of the day Mainz appears to have been a bustling town and a center of commercial activity. Politically, socially and commercially the 15th century was a vibrant time. All these factors may have led to the ease with which Gutenberg was able to raise finance for his enterprises.
It was during this period that Gutenberg came in contact with Johann Fust, a rich advocate by profession. Gutenberg must have explained the basics of his invention and convinced Fust and his brother of its viability and utility. Fust lent Gutenberg a sum of 800 Guilders at an interest of 6 per cent against the surety of his workshop. Fust is believed to have raised this money from other sources. The first payment was made in 1450. This advance from Fust helped Gutenberg set up the printing press that he had visualized.
Here, one needs to get an idea of what this path-breaking invention was that Gutenberg so passionately believed in.
The 15th century was a period of turbulence and activity. Not a period of stagnation. Politics that involved the royalty and the church, was thriving and exciting. In this era of political upheavals the pursuit of arts and science continued. Education was gaining increasing importance. France and Italy became major centers for University education. Literary movement in Germany gained ground in 1414. Enea Silvio Piccolomini, private secretary to Emperor Friedrich III later became Pope Pius II. He had a marked influence on German intelligentsia.
University education for the Germans generally meant leaving their country. Political instability and natural calamities were all part of the game; but the main problem faced by most students was the lack of printed books. Text could be reproduced only by writing, which was understandably a laborious process.
There was brisk trade in popular manuscripts. Ancient paintings and woodcuts depict writing or copyist's rooms showing a person sitting at a desk and writing with tubes cut from reeds, refilling their ‘pens’ with color stored in tips of animal's horns. Some hired slaves to do this work. Many manuscripts were beautifully written and extensively decorated with colors, which still hold luster. While paper or parchment were the usual materials for writing on, unusual pieces of literature were made on parchment with a texture like velvet. Nuns and monks in monasteries were also engaged in this art. A manuscript thus written, required a great amount of time and effort along with a skilled hand. Obviously, they were valued high and priced dearly. Later, wood blocks were made for each page, which were then dipped into ink and ‘printed’ on the writing material. This was also laborious work, as the etching out of each individual page required tremendous time and effort. It was in these circumstances that Gutenberg envisaged his ‘movable printing press’. The printing process consisted of three stages : making the type, setting and printing. Gutenberg cast the individual letters in an alloy of lead, antimony and tin. He cast hundreds of each letter to have enough for a page. The setter then chose the letters to make up the sentences of a page, this page setting though removable was tightly bound by a string. The printer then had to put ink on the type. This ‘ink’ was made of root and pine shavings. The paper was put in water and while still damp it was held over the type and kept in place by a frame. The paper and type together were placed under a press. On the application of force on the press, hundreds of sheets of printed paper could be obtained from the same set type.
This was indeed a revolutionary invention, for while the original type casting could be tedious, as the letters were detachable after being set in the form of a particular page; they could be reused again and again. Gutenberg, after much deliberation, opted for the Bible as the first book ever to be printed. Convinced that he would make a very good profit from the enterprise Fust lent Gutenberg a further 800 guilders.
Gutenberg engaged six setters and six printers for the job. He also roped in Peter Schoffer, a graduate student at Paris University to help him in the project. Gutenberg seems to have endeavored to make the Bible a collector's delight. Each page had 42 lines, giving it the name ‘42-line Bible’. In order to make it artistically and aesthetically appealing, Gutenberg left margins on the top and between columns, which were later hand painted with flower vines and birds. The artists who did this job have mentioned its date of completion as August 24, 1456
However, Gutenberg’s enthusiasm and quest for perfection were overtaken by an event, which he never could have imagined. On November 6, 1455, Johann Fust approached the court for recovery of 2,026 guilders from Gutenberg. This was the sum total of the principal amount lent by Fust, that is, 1,600 guilders and 426 guilders towards interest thereon. This was a bolt from the blue for Gutenberg. He appears not to have taken the summons too seriously, and sent his assistants to speak for him. Gutenberg may have relied on his experience in the Strasbourg case. But it was not to be so this time. Fust insisted that Gutenberg had taken the initial loan of 800 guilders against the surety of his workshop and the second loan was toward incidental expenses. Gutenberg had failed to pay him interest and as Fust himself had borrowed the amount on interest he sought repayment of the loan. Gutenberg argued that while he had procured the two loans from Fust, the latter had verbally agreed to waive interest. Of the second loan he had received only 300 guilders. The court relied on written documents and Fust’s testimony and awarded the workshop and the goods which included printed copies of the 42-line Bible. The judgment of the court in the case is known as the Helmasperger notarial instrument, named after the notary who legalized it. This judgment was a grievous blow for Gutenberg. In effect, the product of years of hard work by Gutenberg was handed over to Fust on a platter.
It is debatable whether Fust went to court because his patience had run out or being a shrewd businessman, he had struck while the iron was hot. He definitely had a fair idea of the worth of the invention, and having perceived that it had reached the critical take-off stage, threw Gutenberg out of the project. It was true that Gutenberg was striving for perfection and may have taken longer than what Fust expected or could afford. But the total worth of what Fust obtained as a result of the court judgment was much more than what was due to him. The role of Gutenberg’s assistant Peter Schoffer in this affair is also suspect. He appeared as a witness against Gutenberg in the court case and later, married Fust’s daughter. Whatever be the reasons, circumstances conspired to rob Gutenberg of much of the prestige and most of the profits earned through years of dedicated hard work and innovative thinking. However, it must be mentioned that though the Bible was printed without acknowledging Gutenberg's contribution to its making, even today it is popularly known as the Gutenberg Bible. The type of this Bible remained with Gutenberg and was purchased from his estate after his death by Konrad Humfery
On conclusion of the case, Fust came in possession of a large amount of type. In 1457, Fust with the help of Peter Schoffer printed Mainz Psalter, a major work and the first book in Europe to carry the name of its printers Johann Fust and Peter Schoffer. The other outcome of the case was that Gutenberg’s assistants helped spread the technique adopted by Gutenberg to other parts of Europe.
While some historians believe that the Fust case left Gutenberg a broken man financially and mentally, recent study reveals that Gutenberg was able to continue operating a printing shop independently through the 1450s and probably the 1460s. It is also learnt that a municipal officer Konrad Humfery helped Gutenberg financially in his time of need. With the financial help of Johannes Balbus, Catholican, an encyclopedia, was printed in 1460.
The court case appears to have lifted the curtain on his wondrous invention. In 1458, an emissary from the King of France came to see, how, M/s Gutenberg printed books with ‘punches and letters’. Gutenberg was also involved in the printing of some other works and documents but as Gutenberg never put his name as the printer the authenticity of it being Gutenberg's original work is sometimes un-provable.
Just as Gutenberg was slowly beginning to settle down into professional and financial stability, political riots broke out in Mainz. In December 1461, Adolph of Nassau attacked the city and his troops burnt, pillaged and killed, leaving more than 400 dead. The following day, Nassau ordered all but his adherents to leave the city. Gutenberg was among those expelled, and his house confiscated. After this show of strength, Nassau realized that a city bereft of life and livelihood would not be of much use to him. He slowly started encouraging the citizens to return and in 1465, he appointed Gutenberg as one of his courtiers. This honor assured Gutenberg a supply of food and clothing. He was, however, not given back his old house, but lived in another habitat close by. On February 3, 1468, Gutenberg died and was buried at the church in his hometown.
Thus, ended the life of one of the great inventors. While no authentic portrait of the man is available, a copper engraving of 1584, shows a man with a beard, a fur trimmed cap and a letter stamp in his hand. This is taken to be a good likeness of him.
Gutenberg’s name and invention were to survive much beyond his death. Within two decades of Gutenberg's death the printing process invented by him was in use worldwide. What is more fascinating is that for the next 400 years there was hardly any material change made in the process. It is said that even 400 years after his death if Gutenberg had walked into any printing workshop, he could have got down to work with ease.
Though Gutenberg’s name is not mentioned in any of his works or the works attributed to him, posterity has recognized him as the true genius behind the revolutionary invention. Mainz town has set up a Gutenberg Museum in memory of its distinguished citizen. This was razed to the ground during World War II but was rebuilt in 1962. Gutenberg’s statue also adorns the museum. Exhibits included glimpses of Gutenberg’s early experiments with the printing process as also his old printing press. A priceless copy of the 42-line Bible is also on display.
Gutenberg was indeed a technical wizard. His invention, which made books available to the masses, was truly revolutionary. The impact of the invention is so widespread and so universally beneficial that many believe it to be the most important discovery in history. The written world is indeed powerful. The spread of knowledge, information, religion and thoughts can be attributed to it. Gutenberg’s revolutionary invention brought the magic of the written word into the lives of the ordinary human and we owe him a debt of gratitude that he truly deserves.